Шпаргалки по теоретической грамматике на английском языке

Theoretical Grammar 1. Theoretical grammar in the system of language Aspects of language: phonetics, grammar, lexis. Theoretical grammar – descriptions and analysis. Grammar consists of morphology (word building & parts of speech) and syntax (minor & major). History of grammar: 4 main periods. 5 c. BC – Indian grammar course, language – Sanskrit; Ancient period: what’s 1st: name or object?

2 theories Thesey (язык возник из договора между людьми) & Physey (от природы). Aristotle (phonetics & morphology), Stoics (parts of speech), Alexandrian philological school, the Romans added interjections, developed semantics…; Middle ages. Word or object? Using rules, comparing different languages (Indian theory);

Renaissance: most fruitful period, start to studying modern languages. 2,3. 5 types of English grammars, 2 periods differences I period. 1. Prenormative (16-1st p.of 17c.) – W.Lily, wrote Latin grammar in English, Latin vs. English paradigme, theory of signs, analytical vs. syntactical lang s. Bulloca – theory of cases (5), Latin classification of parts of speech (declinable – n, pron, v,

partcp, indeclinable – adv, prep, conj, int). 18 c. – Brightland classification (n, adj, v, partcp). Morphology, terms “sentence”, “syntax”, punctuation, word order. 2. Prescriptive (2nd p.of 18 c.) – standards of usage. Improvements in morphology: 9 p.of speech; 2 cases for n 3 for pron.; main (subject+predicate) & subordinate (object, attr modifier) p.of sentence; proper (coordination) & complex (subordination)

compound sentences; theory of conjunctions (copulative & disjunctive); descriptions of forming Future Tense. 4. Morphemic structure of a word Morpheme – the smallest part of a word, formed by phonems (learned – learnt). Allomorphs – variants of the same morpheme (speaker – actor). Model of an English word: prefix, root (radical), lexical suffix (shows the meaning of the word: specialize – v), grammatical suffix (shows the paradigm of the word: specialized –

Past Simple Tense). 5. The morpheme. Different types of morphemes 1. Root (basic meaning) & affixal (specification), last divided into prefixes, suffixes & inflexions (grammatical suffix) 2. Free & bound. Dreadful: dread- – free; -ful – bound. 3. Overt (we can see) & covered. Table_ – zero ending, covered; tables, -s – overt. 4. Additive (cat – cats) & replacive (woman – women).

II period (from beg.of 20th c.up to now) 3. Scientific grammar – analysis, prescription. Sweet divided p.of speech by meaning, form, function. Kimball, Onions, Zandwood, Jasperson. Theory of sentences; half-clauses (The man stood silent); loose (coordination) & close (subordination) syntactic groups; 3 ranks theory (1st – n, pron; 2nd – v, adj; 3rd – adv).

4. Structural grammar – technological development, connected with recorded speech, analysis of different types of text. Freeze – Theory of 4 classes (1st – n, pron; 2nd – v; 3rd – adj; 4th – adv); sentences can be formed by using them in different combinations. Functional words. 5. Transformational grammar – transformation of a language construction into a different one; has syntactic, semantic, phonological components.

Deep & surface analysis. Cholmsky developed phrase theory, connected with phonology. 6. The distributional analysis It is connected with the context & environment (right and left). 3 types of distribution: 1. Contrastive – functions of the morphs and their forms are different. Seams – seamless – seamy. Played – playing. 2. Non-contrastive – different forms, same function. Learned – learnt. Cats – oxen. 3. Complimentary – different forms, same meaning; forms connected with

environment. Burning – burns – burnt – burned. 8. Theory of parts of speech: notional & functional words. Sweet and representatives of scientific grammar divided the parts of speech into notional (именные) & functional (вспомогательные). Notional parts of speech are: noun, adj, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb. Functional are: article, preposition, conjunction, particle, interjection, and modal words. Notional parts: meaning – m; form(s) – f; function – fn

Noun: m – substance; categories of gender, number, case, article, determination, suffixal f s of derivation; fn – substantial. Adjective: m – property; f. of composition for compound, specific f s of derivation, degrees of comparison; fn – attributive. Pronoun: m – identification; different f s & categories; fn – substantial, adjectival. Attribute: m – number; f s of composition, derivation, 7. Oppositional theory 3 types of oppositions: 1.

Privative (the main group) – presence or absence of a feature. E.g.: smile – strong, marked, positive. Smiled – weak, unmarked, negative, Past Tense. 2. Gradual – degree of a feature. E.g.: tree – a tree – the tree. 3. Equipollent – presence of different possible features. E.g.: to be forms – I am, you are, he is… degrees of comparison; fn – numerical attributes & substantives.

Verb: m – process, finite – process, non-finite – name of the process; f s – categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood; fn s – predicate for finite & mixed, verbal & non-verbal for non-finite. Adverb: m – secondary property, f s of degrees of comparison, suffixes of derivation; fn – adverbial modifier. Functional parts. Article: limitation of substantial word; prep: dependencies & independencies of a word; conj: connection; particles: specify & limit the meaning; modal

words: not connected with the sentence, show the attitude of the speaker to the utterance; interjections: express emotions; post-positives: prepositions, which are used with verbs to change their meaning. 9. Noun as a part of speech Meaning – thingness, nominative. Functions – subject, object, nominal part of a predicate, attribute, adverbial modifier. Categories – gender, number, case, article determination.

Word forming: suffixal features (suffixes -ist, -ess, -er, -or, -ment, -ity, -ism, -ee, -ance, -ness), compound words (blackboard, fireplace), conversional patterns (water – to water). Classes of nouns: proper & common, animate & inanimate, human & non-human, countable & uncountable, concrete & abstract. Field structure of a noun. Cone – countable, concrete; periphery – uncountable, abstract.

Transformations: lady’s book – book of a lady. Gender: person (feminine, masculine), marked & 10. Syntactic function and types of combinability of the noun Meaning – thingness, nominative. Functions – subject, object, nominal part of a predicate, attribute, adverbial modifier. Types of combinability: noun+noun noun+adjective noun+preposition (possessive case) noun+verb (subject & predicate; predicate & object) non-person, weak, neutral for objects, animals,

abstract nouns. Common gender words: teacher, president, cousin, parent. Suffixes -ess, -ee for feminine gender. Lexical & grammatical means: boyfriend – girlfriend, Tom-cat – Pussy-cat. Number: singular, marked & plural, weak. Suffix -s. Archaic suffixes – -en, -ren, -n. Vowel & consonant transmission (man – men), words from Greek & Latin (phenomenon – phenomena), homonymous groups (fish).

Abstract sg. & plur.nouns form singular tantum (fear, love) & plural tantum (clothes; measles). Case: possessive, marked & common, weak. Theory of limited cases: 2 cases, Genitive is expressed with -s & ‘of’. Theory of positional cases. Vocative case – we address smb. Dative – for indirect objects. Accusative – for direct.

Theory of prepositional cases (many examples) 12. Gender system of a noun Gender: person (feminine, masculine), marked & non-person, weak, neutral for objects, animals, abstract nouns. Common gender words: teacher, president, cousin, parent. Suffixes -ess, -ee for feminine gender. Lexical & grammatical means: boyfriend – girlfriend, Tom-cat – Pussy-cat. Countries & ships – feminine, except

Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Afghanistan. Number: singular, marked & plural, weak. Suffix -s. Archaic suffixes – -en, -ren, -n. Vowel & consonant transmission (man – men), words from Greek & Latin (phenomenon – phenomena), homonymous groups (fish). Abstract sg. & plur.nouns form singular tantum (fear, love) & plural tantum (clothes; measles). 13. Cases of noun in the system of the English language

Case: possessive, marked -s & common, weak. Theory of limited cases: 2 cases, Genitive is expressed with -s & ‘of’. Theory of positional cases – the function of a noun in the sentence shows the case. Vocative case – we address smb. Dative – for indirect objects. Accusative – for direct. Theory of prepositional cases – all cases are expressed through combination

noun+prep. Dative – to, for; genitive – of. Subdivisions of genitive case: genitive of possessor, general possession (teacher’s desk); genitive of integer, organic possession (James’ hands); genitive of received qualification, connected with property (Mary’s vanity); of agent (teacher’s insistence); of the author (Galsworthy’s novel); of patient, passive meaning (Titanic’s tragedy); 14. Articles Have categories of definity & indefinity.

1. Syntactical (word order) 2. Lexical (combinability of noun+some other word) 3. Type close to affixation (типа «он-то знал») Articles can be Definite, Indefinite, Zero article. 2 theories: article+noun is 1) analytical form of a noun where article is an auxiliary part, meaning identification; 2) combination of some special kind. Article can replace pronouns this/that, grammatical meaning.

Meanings of article: 1) definite – identification, individualization, concrete meaning; 2) indefinite – generalization, classifying; 3) zero – abstraction. Origin of the article: definite – pronouns this/that; indefinite – pronoun “one”. of destination, functional meaning (woman’s book); of dispensed qualification, characteristic of an object (girl’s voice – девичий голос); of comparison (cock’s self-confidence of the man); adverbial genitive of time or place (evening’s

programme, street lights); genitive of quantity (three miles’ distance, an hour’s talk). Theory of oppositions: Level 1: identification (definite, marked) & non-identification (weak, not marked); Level 2: relative generalization (classification) – marked & absolute generalization (abstraction) – not marked. Definite Article. Use it, when we know smth.about the object, closer to ream (рема). Indefinite Article. Start new information. Zero Article: according to grammar & stylistic rules,

in phrases to take place, to make use, in debt, etc. 3 main tips: 1) meaningful absence, objects with abstract notions (Law begins at the beginning of human society); 2) before uncountable nouns (Coffee or tea, please); 3) before countable nouns in plural (Stars, planets, and comets are different celestial bodies). 15. The English verbs The most complicated group of parts of speech.

Has many forms & categories, plays different roles in a sentence. Meaning – process, action. Can be finite (личные) & non-finite (неличные) forms (Gerund, Participle, Infinitive). Verb+noun (subject & object); adverb+noun (modifier & object). Verb suffixes: -ate, -en, -ify, -ize; prefixes: be- (befriend), en em- (embed). Verbal prefixes: under re over sub un mis Categories: person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood.

17. Divisions of the verb 1. According to structure, verbs can be: simple (go, take); composite (blackmail); conversion patterns, originated from nouns (to park, to house); sound replacive (blood – to bleed); stress replacive (import – to import); phrasal + nouns & prep. (to give a smile, to have a smoke); verb + postpositive (look at, look through, look down). 2. According to Past Tense forming, can be regular & irregular.

3. According to the subject process relation, can be additional (have a doer of an action – to present), statal (have a process – to rain) & processial (to support). 4. According to nominative value, can be full (notional verbs) & partial (auxiliary – elements of a particular category, modal – attitude of the speaker, linking verbs – be, begin, stop, continue, happen) nominative value. 16. Word-building structure of the verb

According to structure, verbs can be: - simple (go, take); - composite (blackmail); - conversion patterns, originated from nouns (to park, to house); - sound replacive (blood – to bleed); - stress replacive (import – to import); - phrasal + nouns & prep. (to give a smile, to have a smoke); - verb + postpositive (look at, look through, look down). According to Past Tense forming, can be regular & irregular. Notional verbs can be complementive (transitive, able

to take the direct object) & uncomplementive (intransitive). Complementive: 1. predicative (linking verbs) • pure linking verb (to be) • specifying links (to become, to taste, to appear) • notional links (to lay awake) 2. objective • monocomplimentive - possessional objective (have) - direct objective (forget, enjoy, take) - non-passivized prepositional adjective (belong to, relate to) - prepositional objective (look at, point to) - non-passivized direct objective (cost,

fail) • biocomplimentive - addressee-direct objective ~ prepositional, non-prepositional (give, pay, hand, show) ~ prepositional (mention, say, explain) - double direct objective (teach, ask, give) - double prepositional objective (consult) - addressee prepositional objective (tell about) - adverbial adjective (put, lay, bring, place) 3. adverbial • taking an adverbial compliment of place & time (live, start) • taking an adverbial compliment of manner (act, behave)

Uncomplementive: 1. personal (work, start, act, hesitate, laugh) 2. impersonal (rain, snow) 5. According to the meaning, can be actional (survive, suffer, see), purely processial (display, consider) & statal. 6. According to mental & social processes: know – think, notice – note. 7. In connection with senses: smell – taste, listen – hear, feel – touch, see – look. 8. According to the duration of process: continual (linger), repeated (sleep, re-do), concluded (jump,

die), non-concluded, momentary, starting. 9. According to vallency (ability of a verb to combine with other verbs) can be: obligatory (necessary, combination isn’t completed without some adding – to see) & optional (not necessary). Syntactic-distributional classification of parts of speech Types of this theory: 1. Sweet’s theory. Parts of speech declinable (n, adj, v) & indeclinable. Main criteria – morphological. Syntactical classification: - noun groups (n, pron, verb (infinitive),

gerund, numerals, participles); - verbal group (verbs & verbals – gerund, participle, infinitive); - adjective words (pron, numerals, participles) 2. Jasperson’s theory. Between morphological & syntactical. 3. Freeze’s theory: postnotional words in the sentence, 4 classes (n, adj, v, adv). The word doesn’t change the structure of a sentence.

15 groups of parts of speech (functional words). The Theory of Phrases A phrase is a combination of 2 or more notional words connected by means of subordination: e.g. cold weather, writing letters, fruit salad, Peter’s book. The elements of the phrase may belong to any PofS. Some of the scholars do not single out the phrase at all.

H.Sweet – a word group. A phrase is a means of naming some phenomena or process, a sentence is a unit with every word having its definite form. A change in the form of one or more words would produce a new sentence. A phrase or a word has no intonation. A sentence has it. Immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis) Phrases from a gr-al point of view can be divided into: * -those which perform the function of one or

more parts of the sentence * -those who’s function is that of a preposition or 4. Smith’s theory. Double classification according to morphology & syntactical rules. 5. Glisson’s theory: all words can be divided in 2 groups, with marks of changing & without. E.g.: beautiful – fine. Divided the parts of speech into adjectivals, pronominals & constituent classes ( с одной позицией). 6. Sweet and representatives of scientific grammar divided the parts of

speech into notional (именные) & functional (вспомогательные). Notional parts of speech are: noun, adj, numeral, pronoun, verb, adverb. Functional are: article, preposition, conjunction, particle, interjection, and modal words. conjunction. Synthetical relations between the components of a phrase: * agreement – method of expressing a synthectical relationship which consist in making the subordinate word take a similar form of the head word // this

book, those books as to the problem of agreement of the verb with the noun and pronoun denoting the subject of the action // a child plays, children play – usually treated on the sentence level * government – the use of certain form of subordinate word required by its head word but not coinciding with the form of the head word. Only case in ENG – personal pronouns // invite him * adjoinment – the connection between these words is preserved owning to the grammatical and semantic compatibility of the adv.

Only verb + adv * enclosure – some element of a phrase is enclosed between 2 parts of another element.