Шпаргалки по лексикологии на английском языке (2 часть)

Phraseology as a branch of linguistics. Phraseology - a branch of linguistics which deals with different types of set e[pressions. Phraseological units - set expressions exist in the language as ready-made units. According to Vinogradov classification has a) phraseological combinations - are word - groups with a partially changed meaning. They may be said to be clearly motivated, that is the meaning of the units can be easily deduced from the meanings of its constituents. (to be good at smth to have a bite);

b) unities - are word - groups with a completely changed meaning, that is, the meaning of the unit doesn’t correspond to the meanings of its constituent parts. (to loose one’s head (to be out of one’s mind), to loose one’s heart to smb.(to fall in love).; c) fussions - are word - groups with a completely changed meaning but, in contrast to the units, they are demotivated, that is, their meaning can’t be deduced from the meanings of its constituent parts. (to come a cropper(to come to disaster).

The Koonin’s classification is the latest outstanding achievement in the Russian theory of phraseology. I. Nominative phraseological units - are represented by word - groups, including the ones with one meaningful word, and coordinative phrases of the type wear and tear, well and good. II. Nominative - communicative phraseological units - include word - groups, of the type to break the ice - the ice is broken III. Phraseological units - which are neither nominative nor communicative

include interjectional word - groups. IV. Communicative phraseological units - are represented by proverbs and sayings. Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He points out two-top units which he compares with compound words because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.

Among one-top units he points out three structural types; a) units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to sandwich in etc.; b) units of the type «to be tired» . Some of these units remind the Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositons with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions «by» or «with», e.g. to be tired of, to be interested in,

to be surprised at etc. There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of the type «to be young», e.g. to be akin to, to be aware of etc. The difference between them is that the adjective «young» can be used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative. In these units the verb is the grammar centre and the second component is the semantic centre; c) prepositional-

nominal phraseological units. These units are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs , that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic centre is the nominal part, e.g. on the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course of, on the stroke of, in time, on the point of etc. In the course of time such units can become words, e.g. tomorrow, instead etc. Among two-top units A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types: a) attributive-nominal

such as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round one’s neck and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms) sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other cases the second component is idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind alley, bed of nail, shot in the arm

and many others. b) verb-nominal phraseological units, e.g. to read between the lines , to speak BBC, to sweep under the carpet etc. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.g. to fall in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic centre, e.g. not to know the ropes. These units can be perfectly idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one’s boats,to vote with one’s feet, to

take to the cleaners’ etc. Very close to such units are word-groups of the type to have a glance, to have a smoke. These units are not idiomatic and are treated in grammar as a special syntactical combination, a kind of aspect. c) phraseological repetitions, such as : now or never, part and parcel , country and western etc. Such units can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs , back and forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.g cakes and ale, as busy as a bee.

Components in repetitions are joined by means of conjunctions. These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives and have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly idiomatic, e.g. cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter (perfectly). Phraseological units the same as compound words can have more than two tops (stems in compound words), e.g. to take a back seat, a peg to hang a thing on, lock, stock and barrel, to be a shaddow

of one’s own self, at one’s own sweet will. Semantic changes. Semantic change – changes of both synchronic and diachronic nature, which concerns the semantic content of the word. New meanings would appear by means of semantic shift (q.v.) and semantic transference (q.v.), which lead to the growth of polysemy. Causes for s.ch. can be both extralinguistic and linguistic. There are many causes of semantic change: • 1) Historical causes.

According to historical principle, everything develops changes, social institutions change in the course of time, the words also change. Ex.: “car” which goes back to Latin “carfus” which meant a four wheeled (vehicle) wagon, despite of the lack of resemblance. • 2) Psychological causes. Taboos of various kinds. Words are replaced by other words, sometimes people do not realize that they use euphemisms. Ex.: “lady’s room” instead of the “lavatory” • 3)

Linguistic causes Tendency of a language to borrow a particular metaphorical development of a word from another language. There are many causes of semantic change: • 1) Historical causes. According to historical principle, everything develops changes, social institutions change in the course of time, the words also change. Ex.: “car” which goes back to Latin “carfus” which meant a four wheeled (vehicle) wagon, despite of

the lack of resemblance. • 2) Psychological causes. Taboos of various kinds. Words are replaced by other words, sometimes people do not realize that they use euphemisms. Ex.: “lady’s room” instead of the “lavatory” • 3) Linguistic causes Tendency of a language to borrow a particular metaphorical development of a word from another language. The nature of semantic change. Metaphor accounts for a very considerable proportions

of semantic changes. Language is full of so-called fossilized (trite-банальный, избитый, неоригинальный) metaphors, which no longer call up the image of an object from which they were borrowed. Ex.: the leaf of a book; hands of a clock; a clock face; hands of a cabbage. Metonymy is the tendency of certain words to occur in near proximity & mutually influence one another. Ex.: • He drinks 2 cups (tea, coffee) every morning. •

He has eaten 2 plates (porridge) today. “Bureau” (French origin) When it appeared in the language, meant “thick green cloth” usually tables were covered with it, it became associated with a writing table. (BrE) AmE: 2 further stages • - an office furnished with writing tables • - an office 1) The substitution of cause, form effect - sleeping sickness is diseases which causes sleep & vice versa. 2) Catachresis is a gradual planting of one sense for another for a large

or short period of time. Ex.: - sermon (early) – any conversation (now) – religious conversation One of the chief consequences of semantic change is the change in the area meaning. Each word has an area of meaning, it has certain limits. As a result of semantic change this area of meaning can be restricted (ограниченный, узкий) or expended (тратить, расходовать (на что-л for, on, in)). Ex.:

1. Restriction of meaning: - names for classes of animals “deer” – earlier included all wild animals now only deer “fowl” – earlier - birds in general now – poultry & wild fowl (дичь) - a number of Anglo-Saxon words shrunk under the influence of Norman words “pond” – from Latin “pontus” (sea or large stretch of water). Due to its confrontation with word “lake” “pond” changed its meaning to “пруд”. 2. Expansion of meaning. It happens as a result of chance situations.

The word “вокзал’ came to Russian from English word “Vauxhall” as the general name of all main railway stations. Now – автовокзал, ж/д вокзал, м/р вокзал. The same thing happens very often with loan words .