Introduction
Number is thegrammatical category of the noun which shows whether we speak of one thing orof more than one. The categoryof number is expressed by the oppositionof the plural form of the noun to its singular form.
Accordingly,there are two numbers: the singular and the plural.
The problem ofcategory of number of nouns is very essential nowadays. Russian and Englishlanguages have different grammatical, syntactical and phonetic forms ofexpression. These languages have nouns which are used only in the singular, onlyin the plural and both in singular and plural. A lot of people in the processof communication make mistakes because they don’t know rules and laws necessaryfor exact case.
The goal ofthe present work is to study the category of number of English nouns andcompare it with the Russian ones.
Objectives ofthe present work:
1. To consider the category of number of nouns
2. To study different types of number
3. To analyze the formation and meaning of number
4. To study different cases of usage of category of number of nouns
5. To consider the development of plural forms in connection with achange of meaning of the noun
6. To study Russian category of number of nouns, different cases ofusage
Practicalsignificance of this work is that it can be used in educational establishments,at classes on theoretical and practical grammar. This work can be useful forstudents, studying English language.
The term-paperconsists of content, introduction, three main chapters, conclusion,bibliography and appendix.
1. The Problem of Category of Number in Modern English
1.1 The Category of Number of Nouns
The categoryof number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun toits singular form. The semantic difference of the oppositional members of thecategoryof number in many linguistic works is treated traditionally:the meaning of the singular is interpretation as «one» and the meaning of theplural as «many» (more than one).
As thetraditional interpretation of the singular and the plural members does not workin many cases, recently the categorical meaning of the plural has beenreconsidered and now it is interpreted as the denotation of «the potentiallydismembering reflection of the structure of the referent».
Thecategoricaloppositionof number is subjected to the process ofoppositional reduction. Neutralization takes place when countable nouns beginto function as Singularia Tantum nouns, denoting in such cases either abstractideas or some mass material, e.g. on my birthday we always havegoose; orwhen countable nouns are used in the function of the Absolute Plural: the boardare not unanimous on the question. A stylistically marked transposition isachieved by the use of the descriptive uncountableplural (the fruitsof the toil are not always visible) and the «repetition plural» (carafter car rushed past me). In Modern English the form of the singular ofnouns is a bare stem without any flexion or with zero inflexion. Nouns inplural are characterized by ending «-s (-es)».
The meaning ofnumber expresses by grammatical forms is extremely generalized. Concretemeanings of nouns can be expressed lexically with the help of numerals andgrammatically through grammatical meaning of inflexions. A zero inflexionindicates one thing and the grammatical form with an opposite inflexionindicates more than one things.
The presencein language of such ways of expressing a generalized meaning of number must beconsidered as a result of a process of abstraction formed by the human thoughtfor a long period of time. [1]
Modern Englishlike most other languages distinguishes two numbers: singular and plural.The meaning of singular and plural seems to be self-explanatory, that is theopposition: one – more than one. The essential meaning of the category (innouns) is not that of quantity, but of discreteness. Concrete meanings ofnouns can be expressed lexically with the help of numerals and grammaticallythrough grammatical meaning of inflexions. A zero inflexion indicates one thingand the grammatical form with an opposite inflexion indicates more than onethings.1.2 Types of Numbera)Singular versus plural. In most languages with grammatical number, nouns, andsometimes other parts of speech, have two forms, the singular, for one instanceof a concept, and the plural, for more than one instance. Usually, the singularis the unmarked form of a word, and the plural is obtained by inflecting thesingular.b)Collective versus singulative. Some languages differentiate between a basicform, the collective, which is indifferent in respect to number, and a morecomplicated derived form for single entities, the singulative. A rough examplein English is «snowflake», which may be considered a singulative form of «snow»(although English has no productive process of forming singulative nouns, andno singulative modifiers).c) Dual number. The distinction between a «singular» number (one) and a«plural» number (more than one) found in English is not the only possibleclassification. Another one is «singular» (one), «dual» (two) and «plural» (morethan two). Dual number existed in Proto-Indo-European. Many more modernIndo-European languages show residual traces of the dual, as in the Englishdistinctions both versus all and better versus best.d) Trial number. The trial number is a grammatical number referring to'three items', in contrast to 'singular' (one item), 'dual' (two items), and'plural' (four or more items). There is a hierarchy between number categories:No language distinguishes a trial unless having a dual, and no language has dualwithout a plural. English, along with the other Germanic languages and mostRomance languages, uses the plural.e) Distributive plural. Distributive plural number, for many instancesviewed as independent individuals (e.g. in Navajo).
In most languages, the singular is formally unmarked, whereas theplural is marked in some way. Other languages, most notably the Bantulanguages, mark both the singular and the plural, for instance Swahili (seeexample above). The third logical possibility, rarely found in languages, isunmarked plural contrasting with marked singular.
Elements marking number may appear on nouns and pronouns independent-marking languages or on verbs and adjectives in head-markinglanguages.
There areseveral types of number: singular versus plural, collective versus singulativ,dual number, trial number and distributive plural. But Modern English like mostother languages distinguishes only two numbers: singular and plural
1.3 Meaning and Formation of Number
1. InModern English the singular form of the nouns is a bare stem with a zero-inflexion(нулевая флексия): book, boy,girl.
The plural isformed by the inflexion – (e) s [z, s, iz]: boy – boys, book –books, box – boxes.
Compare theRussian noun стол (столы) which alsohas a zero-inflexion in the nominative case of the singular, with the noun река (реки), which has apositive inflexion in the nominative case of the singular as well as of theplural.
The inflexion –(e) s is a modification of the Old English plural inflexion – as. InOld English there were several ways of forming the plural; the – as inflexionwhich was used only with masculine nouns, later on in its modified form (-as>-es>-s)became the general inflexion of the plural of nouns.
The plural inflexionis pronounced [iz] after voiced consonants and vowels: cabs, raids, tables,pens, factories, tractors; [s] after voiceless consonants: books,pilots, pipes; [iz] after sibilants: classes, bushes, branches, boxes.
Note. – Nounsending in a mute – e preceded by a sibilant, in spelling – se, ce, – ze,– (d) ge, add the inflexion – s [iz] horse – horses; price – prices;size – sizes; bridge – bridges: village – villages.
2. Withsome nouns the final voiceless consonant is changed into a corresponding voicedconsonant before the inflexion – es [z] is added. To this group belong:
a) Nounsending in – fe or – f [f]. The f is changed into v (consonantinterchange), and the inflexion – es [z] is added: knife–knives;shelf – shelves; wife – wives.
Note. – Somenouns ending in –f or – ff, simply add – s [s] in the plural: roof– roofs; chief – chiefs; handkerchief – handkerchiefs;cliff – cliffs; cuff – cuffs; muff – muffs.
The followingnouns have double forms: hoof – hoofs, hooves; scarf – scarfs,scarves.
b) Somenouns ending in – th [θ], change the θinto [3]: mouth[mauθ] – mouths [mauθz]; path [pa:θ] – paths[pa:θz]; bath [ba:θ] – baths [ba:3z].
c) Thenoun house [haus] – houses ['hauziz].
Peculiaritiesof Spelling. Notice the following:
a) When a noun endsin – y preceded by a consonantis replaced by – i and theending – es [iz] is added: city – cities; country – countries;penny – pennies (when a sum of money and not separate coins is meantthe plural form pence is used: It costs five pence.But: Fivepennieswere lying on the table).
b) When a nounends in – o with a preceding consonant, – es [z] is usuallyadded: hero – heroes; Negro–Negroes; potato – potatoes; tomato– tomatoes. But: piano – pianos; photo – photos; zero– zeros.
c) The plural ofproper names and other parts of speech, figures, letters, etc. whensubstantivized, are sometimes written in the ordinary way, sometimes with an 'sadded:
The two Mary'sor the two Marys(y remains unchanged). Mind your P'sand Q's. Cross your t's and dot your i's. Don't use so many buts.
Oh, no, no, athousand no's.[17]»… Mr. Copperfield objected to my threesand fivesbeing too much alike each other, or to my puttingcurly tails to my sevens and nines,» resumed my mother. [10]
3. Some nouns aresurvivals of Old English plural forms; they form the plural:
a) By changingthe root-vowel (vowel interchange): man – men, woman – women,foot – feet, tooth – teeth, goose – geese, mouse – mice;
b) By changingthe root-vowel (vowel interchange) and adding the inflexion [en], in spelling –en: child – children; brother – brethren.1
4. Plural of CompoundNouns.
a) In compound nounsusually the head-noun takes the plural form: fellow-worker – fellow-workers;school-mate – school-mates; air-raid – air-raids; editor-in-chief– editors-in-chief; brother-in-law – brothers-in-law.
b)Compounds ending in – man change – man into –men in spelling, but in pronunciation there is no difference between thesingular and the plural: postman ['poustman] – postmen ['poustman].
Such nouns as German,Roman, and Norman are not compounds. They form their plural in the usualway: Germans, Romans, Normans.
c) When thecompound does not contain any noun, the plural is formed by adding – s tothe last word: forget-me-not – forget-me-nots; merry-go-round (карусель) – merry-go-rounds;hold-all (порт плед) – hold-alls;overall – overalls.
d)Compounds in – fut add – s to the end: handful– handfuls; spoonful – spoonfuls; but also: columns-full (innewspapers).
e) If a proper nounis preceded by a title, the sign of the plural is added either to the title orto the proper noun itself; in colloquial speech it is usual to add the – s tothe proper noun; in official speech the title is pluralized.
Colloquial: Thetwo doctor Thompsons.The Miss SmithsOfficial: Messrs Jones.The MissesSmith.
The Miss Crumptonsor to quote the authorities of the inscription on the garden-gate: The MissesCrumpton. [10]
f) Anadjectivized noun in attributive function is, as a rule, used in the singulareven if the meaning is plural: a four-storey house, a five-act play, theprinted-book section of a museum.
Itwas a three-milewalk along a dry white road, made whiter to-night by the light of the moon.[9]
There is,however, a growing tendency in recent times to use the plural form, especiallyin long official terms: a two-thirdsmajority; the food products department;the sportsgrounds; the United NationsOrganization; parcelspost.
Two powerfulengines were pulling a goodstrain up the sharp incline… [4]
Streams ofpeople were pouring out from the SportsGround… [4]
In manyinstances where the form in – s is used it may be understood either as theplural form of the common case or as the plural possessive. Accordingly, theuse of the apostrophe wavers:
a) Noapostrophe:
I enjoyedseveral hourssleep. There is twenty years difference in their age. Ihad only two shillingspocket money. A bridge of only two planksbreadth.
b) Anapostrophe:
A five years'child. The Seven Years’War. Atwo months' baby.
…it was atwo-and-a half hours' drive. [21]
5. PluralIdentical in Form With the Singular. – Some nouns have one form for bothsingular and plural (either always or in certain combinations).
Those nounsare partly survivals of the Old English and Latin uninflected plurals, partlyforms which came to be used by the analogy of the old unchanged plurals.
The followingnouns have one form for both singular and plural:
a) Namesof some animals: sheep, deer, swine:
… The sheep on theDowns lay quiet as stones. [21] 'Oh, Elizabeth, look, look! The deer!''…Oh yes! How funny the little ones are! But how graceful!' [20]
b) Thenoun fish and nouns denoting some sorts of fish, such as trout,cod,pike, salmon:
One day hecaught a beautiful big fish…[11] In the water tiny fishswam between the olive growths of seaweed… [8] I know where trout arerising and where the salmonleap. [24]
To denotekinds of fish the form fishes is used:
There weremany fishesin the net. She has bought a large book on ourfreshwater fishes. These pools swarm with a great variety of fishes.
c) Namesindicating number such as dozen, pair, couple, and score (двадцать), when they arepreceded by a numeral: two pairof gloves; five scoreof eggs;three dozen of shirts.
But the pluralis also used:
Hehad… two pairsof stockings in his bundle. [10]
Note.– After manyand few both formsare found: so many pairofwings, a great many pairsof gloves; a few score(s)of heads.
d) Wehave survivals of the old uninflected plural in kind, sort, and manner.The usual construction is now to keep kind, sort, and manner unchanged,but to use the plural these(those) if the word following of isplural (these kindof tools). But this construction is by many consideredgrammatically incorrect and therefore in careful literary speech books ofthat kindare preferred to the colloquial those kindofbooks:
These kindsof pens. Such kind of duties. Those sort of speeches.
e) Thenoun foot (measure of length) is feetin the plural. The plural footis used when followed by a number indicating inches:
…I'm five footeleven in my socks. [2] And was she tall enough? Only five foot five.[21]
f) The noun pound(indicating money) has usually the s-plural except when followed by a numeralindicating shillings: two pounds, but: two poundten.
g) The nouns speciesand series borrowed from the Latin have also one form for bothsingular and plural:
A seriesof very, interesting experiments has been made in our laboratory. Twoadmirable seriesof the masters of Russian literature have beenpublished recently. What a pretty species of roses! Many beautiful speciesof roses are cultivated in our garden.
6. ForeignPlurals. – Some nouns keep the plural form of the language (Latin, French orGreek) from which they have been borrowed:
Memorandum[am] – memoranda [э]; datum [am] – data [3]; phenomenon [an] – phenomena [aj; crisis[iz] – crises [i:zj; nucleus [ias] – nuclei [iai]; terminus [as] – termini[ai]; stimulus [as] – stimuli [at]; formula [a] – formulae [i:J; index –indices [i:z].
Words that aremuch used often have an English plural: memorandums, formulas, indexes,terminuses.
In allcountries thebroadest strataof the populationhave been mobilized in support of this great cause – the preservation of peace.
Then the piedwind-flowers and the tulip tall, and narcissi,the fairest amongthem all…[22]… the rest of the house had grown, emerging here andthere into small oasesof modernity. [21] Shelgrim wrote a few memorandaon his calendar pad, and signed a couple of letters before turning toPresley. [14]
Traditionally,the plural is formed by the inflexion – (e) s, the singular form of the nounsis a bare stem with a zero-inflexion. According this there are several ways ofthe pronunciation of the inflexion – (e) s at the end of the word, also thereare several peculiarities in spelling. Some nouns are survivals of Old Englishplural forms; they form the plural. In many instances where the form in – s isused it may be understood either as the plural form of the common case or asthe plural possessive. Some nouns have one form for both singular and plural.Some nouns are partly survivals of the Old English and Latin uninflectedplurals, partly forms which came to be used by the analogy of the old unchangedplurals. Some nouns keep the plural form of the language (Latin, French orGreek) from which they have been borrowed.
1.4 Nouns Used in Both Numbers Singular and Plural
It is quiteevident that only those nouns have both numbers (singular and plural) whichdenote things that can be counted, that is, things possessing a certain shapeor having precise limits. Such nouns may be called countable or thing-nouns. Tothe group of nouns which have both numbers belong:
a) Concretenouns: a girl – two girls; a book – two books; a flower – twoflowers.
He took theloafback to the scullery. [15] Brown, crisp loavesstoodon the hearth. [15] Flowers fell on her face, and she shut her eyes… Oneflower had remained tangled in her hair. [15]
b) Abstractnouns: a day – two days; an event – two events; a task – twotasks.
Captain Cuttleliked this idea very much. [10] A new generation is growing up in ourmidst, a generation actuated by newideasand new principles.[11] It was a momentary thought…[10] Andrew went back toChristine that evening with his thoughtsin a maze. [23] I triedto shout but my voicewas not very loud. [13] Voicesandfootstepswere heard in the passage… [19]
Nouns whichhave both numbers (countable) may be used with the indefinite article (in thesingular) and associated with the pronouns some (in the singular orplural), many and few (in the plural):
A ringat the bell, repeated several times, roused him at last to go to the door.[21] What a nightto wander out in! [21] Towards the evening ofthe following day…a letterarrived addressed to herself. [19] A,few early fallen oak-leaves strewed the terrace… [21] He had manyinvitationsto dinner some of which he accepted. [7] Passing through a sort of porchmade by two yew trees and someflowering-current bushes,the girl disappeared into the house. [21]
1.5 Pluralia Tantum and Singularia Tantum
The mostgeneral quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute thelexico-grammatical base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole intocountable nouns and uncountable nouns. The constant categorial feature «quantitativestructure» is directly connected with the variable feature «number», sinceuncountable nouns are treated grammatically as either singular or plural.Namely, the singular uncountable nouns are modified by the non-discretequantifiers much or little, and they take the finite verb in thesingular, while the plural uncountable nouns take the finite verb in theplural.
The twosubclasses of uncountable nouns are usually referred to, respectively, assingularia tantum (only singular) and pluralia tantum (only plural). [27] Thenouns which have only a plural and no singular are usually termed «pluraliatantum» (which is the Latin for «plural only»), and those which have only asingular and no plural are termed «singularia tantum» (the Latin for «singularonly'') [26] In terms of oppositions we may say that in the formation of thetwo subclasses of uncountable nouns the number opposition is «constantly» (lexically)reduced either to the weak member (singularia tantum) or to the strong member(pluralia tantum).
Since thegrammatical form of the uncountable nouns of the singularia tantum subclass isnot excluded from the category of number, it stands to reason to speak of it asthe «absolute» singular, as different from the «correlative» or «common» singularof the countable nouns. The absolute singular excludes the use of the modifyingnumeral one, as well as the indefinite article. [27]
The mostgeneral quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute thelexico-grammatical base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole intocountable nouns and uncountable nouns. The nouns which have only a plural andno singular are usually termed «pluralia tantum», and those which have only asingular and no plural are termed «singularia tantum».
1.6 Nouns Used Only in the Singular or Singularia Tantum
Nouns denotingthings which have neither shape nor precise limits cannot be counted andtherefore have no distinction between singular and plural; they are used onlyin the singular. Such nouns may be called uncountable or mass-nouns. To thegroup of nouns used only in the singular belong:
a) Concretenouns:
1. Namesof materials: water, milk, wine, snow, bread, air.
Onmy breakfasttable there is a pot of honey.[21]… there was the cool sound ofmilkdropping into pails… [21] We didn't take beeror wine.[11] Seizinginkand writing-paper,she beganto write… [21]
2. Somecollective nouns: foliage, leafage, shrubbery, brushwood, linen (белье), machinery,furniture:
Birdsfluttered softly in the wet shrubbery…[21] He had chosen thefurniturehimself. [21]… he took a narrow ride up through a dark bitof mixedtimberwith heavy undergrowth.(Galsworthy.)
b) Abstractnouns: friendship, joy patriotism, love, kindness, weather, courage,information, progress, etc.: There was agreat deal of confusionand laughter and noise… [11] It was beautifulweather.(Lawrence.) At parting, my aunt gave me some good advice…[10]A sudden tide ofjoywent leaping out of his heart. [11]
Nouns usedonly in the singular (uncountable) have no article where a noun which expressesboth numbers (countable) would be associated with the indefinite article; theymay be used with the pronouns what, some, much or little:
Perfectharvest weather;butoppressively still… [21]Everyone gave him advice…[11] Of course-this was good news.[7] «What delightful weather we are having!» [20] Whatbeauty, what stillness![21] He had anticipated much pleasurein this afternoon's reading… [9] «But have some tea.I'vejust made it.» [21]
Somecollective nouns used only in the plural also belong to the group ofuncountable such as: goods, sweepings, tidings, etc.
1.7 Nouns Used Only in the Plural
1. A number ofnouns are used only in the form of the plural. With these nouns the plural doesnot indicate several objects but denotes a composite whole.
2. To the groupof nouns which are used only in the plural form belong:
a) Thenames of things which consist of two similar halves such as scissors,trousers, spectacles, scales (весы), eye-glasses, tongs (щипцы):
These scissorsare sharp. Your spectacles are on the table. Your opera-glasses are verygood.
b) Nounswhich have collective meaning (concrete or abstract):
1. Concrete:stairs, goods, eaves, slums, outskirts, tropics, memoirs, victuals [vitlz](провизия), supplies,clothes, sweepings, slops (помои), preserves (консервы), parings (кожура), sweets,lodgings (sometimes) lodging; but always board and lodging), etc.:
The car wentsmoothly and swiftly through the outer suburbs…[4] Beads ofwater still dripped from the eaves… [24] At last they reached the outskirtsof the forest… [15] «Got any lodgings – «No.» [10] «Come, hand in eatables.»[10] My clothes were my Sunday best. [2] «I say, can you let a lodging?»[7]
2. Abstract:holidays, tidings, goings-on (поступки), begin nings (also beginning),earnings, wages (often in the singular, especially in the following combinations:a living wage, a fixed wage, a minimum wage), contents, etc.:
She tried toadjust herself to her new surroundings.[4] These are indeedhappy tidings.We get good wages. They spent theirholidaysin the mountains. Bad beginningsmake goodendings(первый блин комом). «Well,» saidWardle, «here are pretty goings-on…» [10] He told me of some of his doings.[5]
3. Insome nouns the final – s loses the meaning of the plural inflexion and the nounis treated as a singular. This is the case with the names of sciences and occupationsin – ics: mathematics, phonetics, optics, which are usually consideredas singular:
Phoneticsis the scienceof sounds. Mathematicsis his strong point.Opticsisa branch of physics;it treats of light.
These nounsare treated as plurals when practical application is meant:
His phoneticsareexcellent. The acousticsof this hall aregood.
Politics,tactics, gymnastics, athletics are generally regarded as plurals.
«The onlypoliticsI understand,» answered Magnus sternly, «are honest politics.»[6]
4. Withsome nouns the usage wavers, and the noun is treated either as a singular or asa plural:
The gas-worksis (are)situated onthe river. Price'sworkswas small. [5] To-day we are going tovisit a great smelting-works…[6]
It should benoted that with regard to nouns used only in the plural the English and theRussian usage sometimes differ. Thus the noun opera-glasses is used inEnglish only in the plural, whereas in Russian бинокль has both numbers. Thenoun сани is used inRussian only in the plural; in English sledge has both numbers. Othernouns are used in one language only in the plural, in the other – only in thesingular. Thus in Russian the noun сумерки is used only in the plural, whereas inEnglish the noun twilight is used only in the singular.
1.8 Nouns Used in the Plural in a Special Sense
In some casesthe plural form of the noun does not express were pluralities (as in tables =table + table…) but acquires a special meaning. Very often theplural form, besides this specific meaning, may also retain the exact meaningof the singular thus resulting in two homonymous words:
colour = tint,colours = 1) plural of tint, 2) flag:
«I do not meanregimental colours,but the watercolours.»[17]
custom = habit,customs = 1) plural of habit, 2) duties:
Many old customsare dying out.Customs(пошлины) are duties imposed by law on goodsimported and exported.
pain =suffering, pains = I) plural of suffering, 2) effort:
She enlivenedour journey by describing to us… the various pains she had in her back. [11] «Ihave examined Adele… and find you have taken great painswith her…[2]
quarter = fourth part, quarters= 1) plural of fourth part, 2) lodgings:
I have readthreequartersof the book. We found him ire his old quarters.
work = toil,labour; works in various senses: the works of a watch (механизм часов), works ofart, etc.
1.9 Double Plural Forms
Some nounshave double plurals used with some difference of meaning:
f 1) brothers(sons of one mother) brother – y 2) brethren (membersof one community)
J 1) geniuses(men of genius) genius ^ 2) genii (spirits)
f 1) pennies(number of coins) penny – y 2) pence (amount of pennies invalue)
(1) staffs (militarystaffs [штаб], staffs [штат] of an staffinstitution)
I 2) staves(sticks)
II) cloths (kindsof cloth) cloth – clothes (articles of dress)
J I) indexes(tables of contents) index – indices (in mathematics)
2. The Development or Loss of Plural Forms in Connection witha Change or Variation of Meaning of the Noun
1. A number ofnouns in English which are used only in the singular (uncountable) may througha change or variation of meaning acquire the forms of both numbers, singularand plural (and thus become countable). This is found in the followinginstances:
a) Materialnouns which are used only in the singular (uncountable) express numbers,singular and plural (countable), when they denote different sorts:
«This isavery rare and most delicious wine.[10] There are manydifferent wineson this list. The teas (tobaccos)ofthis plantation are of a very good quality. We produce high quality steels.
Note.– When amaterial noun serves to denote an object made of that material, it becomes aclass-noun and may be used in both numbers:
Give me aglass (two glasses) of water. I have bought a new iron(two-new irons).A copper, two coppers(медная монета, медяк).
b) Thenoun hair is used in the singular (волосы); a hair is used only with themeaning of a few separate hairs (волосок, волоски):
…this girl's hairwas chestnut, almost auburn. [6] She has a few grey hairs.Shehas more hairthan wit, and more faults than hairs.(Shakespeare.)
c) Thenoun fruit is used in the singular. The plural formfruitsdenotesdifferent kinds of fruit:
The fruitis not yetripe. We have muchfruit this year.
But: Thefruitswere local, consisting of apples, pears, nuts, and such otherproducts of the summer… [9]
The pluralform fruit is also used when the meaning is figurative:
Fruitsof theworkers' toil are buried in the strong coffersof a few. (TheInternational.) The rich fruits of the heroic labour of Soviet people arevisible from all corners of the earth, and they are an inspiration to the citizensof other countries advancing along the path of Socialism.
d) Abstractnouns which are used only in the singular (uncountable), taken in a generalsense, acquire both numbers (and thus become countable) when they expressconcrete instances or special aspects of the notion which they denote:
It has beensuch a joyto see you and Holly. [21]… he sympathized with their joysand grieves;[5]
…now Iremembered that the real world was wide, and that a varied field of hopes andfears,of sensationsand excitements,awaitedthose who had courage to go forth into its expense to seek real knowledge oflife amidst its perils.[2]… May.night had fallen soft andwarm, enwrapping with its grape bloom colour and its scents the billion caprices,intrigues, passions, longings, and regretsof men and women.[21] Little Sharp, with her secret griefs,was the heroine of theday. [1] When sorrows come, they come, not single spies, but in battalions. [1]
Note. – Whensuch nouns as beauty, youth, etc. do not denote abstract qualities butpeople characterized by those qualities, they become class-nouns and are usedin both numbers (like countable nouns): a beauty (красавица), a youth (юноша);
This girl is areal beauty. The youths were marching with red banners-Some abstract nouns are usedin English only in the singular (uncountable), whereas in Russian thecorresponding nouns are used in both numbers (countable): information, news,business, advice, work (работа), progress (успех), and others:«What sort of workdid you do?"[4] «You always give me good advice…»[10] «This newshas shaken me, Eliot.» [20] She is makingsplendid progress in English.
To indicateconcrete instances of advice, information, etc., the words piece or itemare used:
You tell themone or two items of news.[11] «It is a very strange piece ofbusiness!» Iadded… [2]»… I'd like to give you a littlepiece of advice.»[24] She gave me one piece of intelligence,which affected me very much… [10]
2. Sometimesmaterial nouns and abstract nouns are used in the plural with emphatic force:
The frozensnows of the Arctic; thesands of the Sahara Desert; the bluewaters of the Mediterranean Sea; a thousand thanks;a thousandpities.
The thundersbellowed overthe wild waste of waters, and were echoed and prolonged by the mountain waves.[13]
«Thanks. Athousand and one thanks.[19] Far off, rising in an immense slope…Etnasoars towards the heavens, sending from the summit, on which thesnowsstill linger, a steady plume of ivory smoke. [13]»… it wouldbe a thousand pitiesto throw away such a chance of fun.» [2] Farbelow…I heard the «unseen tumbling of the waters.[23] «Athousand pardons?»[10] At sleepy intervals the surf flung its foam acrossthe sandsto the grass… [7]
3. A number ofnouns which express both singular and plural (countable) may with a change ofmeaning are used only in the singular (thus becoming uncountable). This is thecase:
a) Whenthe name of an animal is used to denote its flesh used as food:
A fat browngoose lay at one end of the table… [11] (a countable noun) – While Gabriel andMiss Daly exchanged plates of goose and plates of ham and spiced beef, Lilywent from guest to guest… [11] (an uncountable noun) Two white swans camemajestically by… [21] (a countable noun) «I have n-never eaten roast swanb-before,» I stammered… [24] (an uncountable noun)
b) Whenthe names of trees are used to indicate the corresponding kind of wood as materialor as live plants:
And among theoaksthe bluebells stood in pools of azure… [22] (a countable noun) –«Oak»,he exclaimed. «All carved oak,right up theceiling…» [11] (an uncountable noun)… beautiful woods of birch, fir,andpinecast their shadows through the carriage window as we speedalong. [19] (an uncountable noun)… a narrow strip of larchand beech…stretched out towards the valley… [21] (uncountable nouns)… I come into alane, which winds upwards between grassy slopes to… woods of noble beech.[21] (an uncountable noun)
c) Whenthe nouns tree, bush, twig, etc. do not indicate separate objects but anindivisible whole (compare with the meaning of such nouns as leafage, blossom,brushwood, also with the Russian листва, цвет, кустарник – собирательные существительные):
It (the tree)was covered with young blossoms,pink and twhite…;and on this entire blossom!The sunlight glistened. [21] (1. acountable noun; 2. an uncountable noun) – … the may-flower,bothpink and white, was in full bloom. [21] (a countable noun)… an old orchard ofapple-trees just breaking into flower,stretched down to a streamand a long wild meadow. [21] (an uncountable noun)… a few gold leavesare still hanging… [21] (a countable noun) The apple-tree was in leaf,and all but in flower– its crimson buds just bursting. [7] (uncountablenouns) In that early spring a fewbudswere showing already. [7](a countable noun) – He leaned against one of the satin-smooth stems, under thelacery of twigand bud. [7] (uncountable nouns)
d) When thename of an object is used to denote substance, that is, when it becomes thename of a material:
The summits ofthese vast mountains were enveloped in clouds…[1] (a countablenoun)… the sky was lined with a uniform sheet of dripping cloud…[9](an uncountable noun) Gemmy… presently returned with an eggbeatenup in milk. [22] (a countable noun) – Eggis on your coat, (anuncountable noun) A load that lay on Hood's mind likea rock suddenlyrose like an eagle… [9] (a countable noun) – Grass ceases to grow, and thetrack is almost lost to view among piles of loose slate rock.[20](an uncountable noun)
The pluralforms developed (some of them lose) in connection with a change of meaning ofthe noun. The cases are following: a number of nouns in English which are usedonly in the singular may through a change or variation of meaning acquire theforms of both numbers, singular and plural, sometimes material nouns andabstract nouns are used in the plural with emphatic force, a number of nounswhich express both singular and plural (countable) may with a change of meaningare used only in the singular.
3. Modes andmeans of expression grammatical meaning of number in Russian language
The categoriesof number form one opposition – singular and plural. Russian language hasn’tspecial forms, which express only meaning of number. Six cases forms expresseach of two meaning of number. Forms of case – it simultaneously forms ofgender and nouns.
Compare: sing. – лес, леса, лесу, лес,лесом, о лесе; pl. – леса, лесов, лесам, леса, лесами, о лесах1.
The inflexionof nouns emerges as indicator of number express simultaneously grammaticalmeaning of gender (singular) and case.
In separategroups of name of nouns opposite singular and plural number express with thehelp of suffixes – я, – овья, – ec, which is additional grammatical means, because itemerge together with the inflexion: зять – зя[тя], князь – кня[зя], сын – сын-о[вья], небо – неб-ес-а,…
In nouns withcompound suffix – ан/ин (-ян/ин), чан/чин, whichexpress meaning together with inflexion, in plural this suffix is absent andmeaning of number express only with the help of inflexion: граждан/ин/Ø – граждан/е, северян/ин/Ø – северян/е,…
In names ofanimals’ baby singular number express with the help of suffix – онок (-енок), which inplural interchange with suffix – ат-а (-ят-а): буйволёнок – буйволята, скворчонок – скворчата, страусёнок – страусята…
Correlationsin the names of children meet seldom: казачонок – казачата, батрачонок – батрачата, барчонок – барчата. In the namesof mushrooms more seldom: опёнок – опята, маслёнок – маслята.
Interchangeconsonants and transference of stress used for generated of form of number byway of additional means.
Compare: 1) друг – дру[зья](г-з'); ухо – уши (х-ш); клин – клинья (н-н'). 2) место-места, местам, местами,о местах.
In such a way,meaning of number express syntactically, that is to say with the help of innerresources of word: inflexions, suffixes, interchange of consonants, stress.Used more analytical means – forms agreement.
Compare: забавный лисёнок – забавные лисята, моё ухо – мои уши, летит гусь – летят гуси.
Justanalytically (syntactically) express the category of number – indeclinablenouns, which haven’t their inflexion.
Compare: красивое кашне –красивые кашне, кафе закрыто – все кафе были закрыты. Separate words havesuppletive forms of number: человек – люди, ребёнок – дети.
Figurativeused forms of the category of nouns.
Used form ofsingular number meet often in the meaning of plural number. Example: Речь идет онастоятельной необходимости создать для детей новую, советскую,социалистическую популярно-научную и художественно яркую книгу. В поездке мывстретились с широким массовым зрителем наших национальных республик.
Forms ofplural number in the meaning of singular used in oral speech (в университетах не учился, институтов не кончал) it is havein view one university and one institute.
3.1 Nouns Used Only in the Singular
Nouns whichhave only singularform and not used in plural belong to a group «SingulariaTantum». They are:
1. Uncountable nouns of material, substance (oil, butter, milk,sugar, water, petroleum, steel, copper, wood, ice, gold…) In plural suchnouns denote different sorts of material. When denoting a certain object theymay have both singular and plural.
2. Collective nouns (youth, the students, spruce forest)
3. Abstract nouns (whiteness, cleanness, laziness, kindness,thinness, enthusiasm, rush, mowing, walking, heat, dampness, thaw…)
4. Proper names. These words get plural form if they used nominallyor denote group of people which have the same surname (gender of Tolstoy).
Proper namesdenoting unique objects (sun, moon…)
Some abstractnouns are used in English only in the singular whereas in Russian thecorresponding nouns are used in both numbers (information, advice, news,knowledge…) «This news is pleasant» To indicate concrete instances ofinformation or advice the words «piece», «item» are used «It was the mostinteresting item of information»
3.2 Nouns Used Only in the Plural
Nouns whichhave only plural form and not used in singular belong to a group «PlulariaTantum». They are:
1. The namesof things which consist of two similar halves (scissors, trousers,spectacles, scales (весы), eye-glasses, tongs (щипцы), gates…) «Yourspectacles are on the table»
2. The namesof some games (chees, hide-and-seek, blind man’s buff…)
3. Denotationof some distance (holidays, day, workdays, twilight…)
4. The namesof some mass of substance (pasta, perfume, ink, yeast…)
5. Propernames which connected with first collective meaning (Alps, Carpathians…)
The categoriesof number form one opposition – singular and plural. Russian language hasn’tspecial forms, which express only meaning of number. Forms of case – itsimultaneously forms of gender and nouns. Meaning of number expresssyntactically, that is to say with the help of inner resources of word:inflexions, suffixes, interchange of consonants, stress. If we compare thecategory of number in English and Russian, Russian noun, as well as Englishnouns, can be subdivided into groups – nouns used only in the singular (uncountablenouns of material, substance; collective nouns; abstract nouns; proper names) andnouns used only in the plural (the names of things which consist of two similarhalves; the names of some games; denotation of some distance; the names of somemass of substance; proper names which connected with first collective meaning.
Conclusion
Modern Englishlike most other languages distinguishes two numbers: singular and plural.The meaning of singular and plural seems to be self-explanatory, that is theopposition: one – more than one. The essential meaning of the category (innouns) is not that of quantity, but of discreteness. Concrete meanings ofnouns can be expressed lexically with the help of numerals and grammaticallythrough grammatical meaning of inflexions. A zero inflexion indicates one thingand the grammatical form with an opposite inflexion indicates more than onethings. There are several types of number: singular versus plural,collective versus singulativ, dual number, trial number and distributiveplural. As has already been mentioned Modern English like most other languagesdistinguishes only two numbers: singular and plural. A zeroinflexion indicates one thing and the grammatical form with an oppositeinflexion indicates more than one things. In Modern English the form of thesingular of nouns is a bare stem without any flexion or with zero inflexion.Nouns in plural are characterized by ending «-s (-es)». According this thereare several ways of the pronunciation of the inflexion – (e) s at the end ofthe word, also there are several peculiarities in spelling. Some nouns aresurvivals of Old English plural forms; they form the plural. In many instanceswhere the form in – s is used it may be understood either as the plural form ofthe common case or as the plural possessive. Some nouns have one form for bothsingular and plural. Some nouns are partly survivals of the Old English andLatin uninflected plurals, partly forms which came to be used by the analogy ofthe old unchanged plurals. Some nouns keep the plural form of the language(Latin, French or Greek) from which they have been borrowed. The mostgeneral quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute thelexico-grammatical base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole intocountable nouns and uncountable nouns. The nouns which have only a plural andno singular are usually termed «pluralia tantum», and those which have only asingular and no plural are termed «singularia tantum». In some cases the pluralform of the noun does not express were pluralities but acquire a specialmeaning, some nouns have double plurals used with some difference of meaning. The pluralforms developed (some of them lose) in connection with a change of meaning ofthe noun. The cases are following: a number of nouns in English which are usedonly in the singular may through a change or variation of meaning acquire theforms of both numbers, singular and plural, sometimes material nouns and abstractnouns are used in the plural with emphatic force, a number of nouns whichexpress both singular and plural (countable) may with a change of meaning areused only in the singular. As for category of number Russian nouns – Russianlanguage hasn’t special forms, which express only meaning of number. Forms ofcase – it simultaneously forms of gender and nouns. Meaning of number expresssyntactically, that is to say with the help of inner resources of word:inflexions, suffixes, interchange of consonants, stress. If we compare thecategory of number in English and Russian, Russian noun, as well as Englishnouns, can be subdivided into groups – nouns used only in the singular (uncountablenouns of material, substance; collective nouns; abstract nouns; proper names) andnouns used only in the plural (the names of things which consist of two similarhalves; the names of some games; denotation of some distance; the names of somemass of substance; proper names which connected with first collective meaning).
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