Ministryof Education and Science of Ukraine/>Kyiv National LinguisticUniversityDepartment ofstylistics and linguistics
CoursePaper
”/>Idioms in Commercials: PragmaticAspect”
Scientificsupervisor:
AssociateProfessor V.V. Timofeyeva
Kyiv-2006
ContentsCONTENTSINTRODUCTIONCHAPTER 1. THELINGUISTIC ESSENCE OF IDIOMS1.1. DEFINITIONOF THE IDIOM AS A LINGUISTIC PHENOMENON1.2. BASICFEATURES OF IDIOMSCHAPTER 2.PRACTICAL USAGE OF THE IDIOMS IN COMMERCIAL ADVERTISING2.1. MANIPULATINGBY IDIOMS. FOREGROUNDING2.2. IDIOMATICLANGUAGE IN COMMERCIALS2.3. CREATIVEUSAGE OF THE IDIOMS. EXTENSION AND ALTERATION CONCLUSIONRESUMEBIBLIOGRAPHY
/>Introduction
The English language provides a great array of means created for theexpression and rendering thoughts. In this work we focus on one of the mostefficient expressive tool, namely, an idiom. In brief, an idiom is anexpression (i.e. term or phrase) whose meaning cannot be deducted from theliteral definitions and the arrangement of its parts, but refers instead to afigurative meaning that is known only through conventional use. In linguistics,idioms are widely assumed to be figures of speech that contradict the principleof compositionality. [10; 79]
Idiom is anindispensable part of the language. It helps to create a brighter image, torender concisely an extended idea or create the particular impression with thelistener. Many researches are dedicated to the use of the idiom in literaryworks by poets and prose writers.
However, such apowerful language element could not be also overlooked by the people who searchfor ways of manipulation and persuasion for their own purpose and in business.Therefore, we will analyze the usage of the idioms in business advertising.With a speedy tempo of contemporary life and high rates at media time theusage of idioms in order to make the commercial advertising more effectivebecomes more important which brings about the actuality of this study.
Theaim of the researchis basically todefine the idiom as a tool of commercial manipulation and underline thepragmatic aspect of this language phenomenon in this respect.
This study setsa row of specific tasks to be completed during the research, namely:
- To study and classify the phenomenon ofthe idiom as a linguistic element,
- To analyze the value of idiom both forthe conversational and commercial use,
- To bring out the pragmatic aspect of theidiom in the sphere of commercial advertising.
Theobject of the research paper is the idiomaticphrases and words in English language and their usage.
Thesubject of the study is the use of Englishidioms in commercial advertising regarding their pragmatic aspect.
The paperconsists of the introduction part, two chapters, the conclusion, the referencelist of the literature used and a resume.
/>Chapter 1. The linguistic essenceof idioms
/>1.1. Definition of the idiomas a linguistic phenomenon
idiomlinguistic commercial advertising
The Englishlanguage abounds in idioms like any other highly developed tongues. Idiomsconsist of set phrases and short sentences, which are peculiar to the languagein question and loaded with the native cultures and ideas. Therefore, idiomsare colorful, forcible and thought provoking.
Idiom is anexpression in the usage of a language that is peculiar to itself eithergrammatically (as no, it wasn't me) or in having a meaning that cannot bederived from the conjoined meanings of its elements.
We can draw asimple classification of the idioms.
Categoryand Level. First, we might wish to group themaccording to their category and level. Lexical idioms (ignoring mono-morphemiclexical items) can be nouns, verbs, and adjectives. Phrasal idioms can beadjectival («stark raving mad»). Nominal («notary public»),verbal («come a cropper»), prepositional («in a brownstudy»), or sentential («it takes one to know one»).
Function.For the idioms that are not syntactically dependent on other elements, we couldclassify them according to their function. Some formulaic expresses accompanyacts («this hurts me more than it hurts you»), some accomplish acts(«I declare the meeting adjourned»), some are comments on the ongoingdiscourse («I wouldn't touch that with a ten-foot pole»), some areparenthetical, qualifying what is being said («you might say»), andso on.
SentenceType. Sentential idioms can be classifiedaccording to the sentence type. Some are imperatives («knock onwood», «shut up»), some are conditionals («if the shoefits, wear it»), some are questions («who knows?», «can theleopard change its spots?»), and some use certain special constructions(«the more the merrier», «the bigger they come, the harder theyfall»).
Gaps.Many idioms are not complete «runs» but have gaps in them. Some suchgaps are complete sentences («it's (about) time [you brushed yourteeth]», where the sentence has to be in past tense form), some are verbphrases («I wouldn't [marry Louise] for all the tea in China»), someare noun phrases («play second fiddle to [Harry]»). Possessive gapscan be co-referential to the subject, in the case of verbal idioms («toblow [one's] nose»), or referentially distinct («to pull [someone's]leg»), and some can go either way («to cook [(some) one’s]goose»).
Collocations.Collocations are phrase made up of two or more words, in some grammaticalrelation to each other, where it appears that one or both of the words is hassome special conventional association with the other. In some cases, one of theword only, or almost only, occurs in the phrase in question (the«blithering» of «blithering idiot», the«aspersions» of «cast aspersions»), sometimes each wordoccurs frequently elsewhere but the combination has a special sense or aspecial frequency of occurrence («spontaneous combustion»,«manual labor», «consenting adult»), and so on. [1; 62]
In many cases adependent or modifying word fulfills a necessary function in respect to theother word, such as that of intensifying: «broad daylight»,«dark red», «fancy footwork», «vast majority»,etc.
In the case ofsentential idioms, it is important to distinguish between the conventionalmeaning that a construct built on them might have and the kind of reasoningthat is involved in cooperative conversational interaction. If a mother says,«I wonder who could have left their dirty socks on the middle of thefloor», she probably expects her intended addressee to take this as asarcastic request to pick the socks up and put them where they belong. A lothas been written about the mechanisms for this kind of reasoning; onereasonable view is that the mother expects what she says to be taken as thefirst part of a potentially continuing conversation that, given therelationships that hold between speaker and hearer, is going to lead to aspecific conclusion; the cooperative child can anticipate this path and act onthe inference without requiring the whole conversation to be played out. [1;63]
But now considercertain negative «why» questions, in particular, questions such asthose exhibited here:
«Why don'tyou try again tomorrow?»
«Why don'tyou just memorize your Social Security Number?
»Why don'tyou visit me some time?"
«Why don'tyou be the leader?»
An attemptedpragmatic reasoning explanation for these sentences might follow some suchtrain as train as this: if someone asks me to explain a state of affairs that Iam involved in, it might be that she thinks there's something wrong about thatstate of affairs, and making that inference might lead me to doing something tochange it. Such reasoning will perform quite well with certain kinds ofquestions, but I will claim that it doesn't work in the case of thesesentences.
If you hear,«Why aren't you wearing your shoes?», your natural inclination mightbe to think that the speaker finds this situation questionable and issuggesting you should put your shoes on. Such an inference, however, does notdepend on the question being negative in form: it would be called on just aswell if the question had been «Why are you going barefoot?». [1; 86]
The argumentthat the first group of negative «why» questions make up a specialconstruction, even though constructs built on it closely resemble ordinaryquestions, includes the following points:
(1)«Real» questions with «why» can generally be paraphrased assomething like «situation S exists; explain that». Thus, «Youare not wearing shoes; explain yourself.» The «why» questionsthat are taken as suggestions cannot. «Why don't you be the leader?»,for example, cannot be paraphrased as «You don't be the leader;explain!».
(2) Instances ofthe construction can use «do» with «be», true also of imperatives(obligatory, in the negative «don't be obtuse» and optional in theaffirmative, as in the gushy «do be careful»). Notice the differencein interpretation between «Why aren't you the leader?» and «Whydon't you be the leader?». The first of these does permit the two-partparaphrase. («You aren't the leader; tell me why»).
(3) «Realnegative „why“ questions are generally negative polarity contextsnegative-why-question suggestions are not. In the following two sentences,notice the difference between the suggestion, with „something“, andthe ordinary question, with „anything.
“Why don'tyou try something new?»
«Why don'tyou (ever) try anything new?»
Our conclusion,using the preceding observations and a few others, will have to be that there existsin English a way of expressing suggestions that has the form of a negative«why» question and has some of the internal trappings of a positivesuggestion. [13;26]/>1.2. Basic features ofidioms
All Englishidioms possess basic common features.
Non-compositionality:The meaning of a collocation is not a straightforward composition of themeaning of its parts. For example, the meaning of kick the bucket has nothingto do with kicking buckets. (Kick the bucket means to die.)
Non-substitutability:One cannot substitute a word in a collocation with a related word. For example,we cannot say kick the pail instead of kick the bucket although bucket and pailare synonyms.
Non-modifiability:One cannot modify a collocation or apply syntactic transformations. Forexample, John kicked the green bucket or the bucket was kicked has nothing todo with dying. (Although John kicked his bucket and John's bucket was kickedare both valid)
It is likelythat every human language has idioms, and very many of them; a typical Englishcommercial idiom dictionary lists about 4,000. When a local dialect of alanguage contains many highly developed idioms it can be unintelligible tospeakers of the parent language; a classic example is that of Cockney rhymingslang. But note that most examples of slang, jargon and catch phrases, whilerelated to idioms, are not idioms in the sense discussed here. Also to bedistinguished from idioms are proverbs, which take the form of statements suchas, «He who hesitates is lost.» Many idioms could be consideredcolloquialisms [24;88].
Many idioms werefirst created by working people. These idioms consist of familiar terms whichare associated with their own trades and occupations. Such idioms were allcolloquial and informal and once confined to a limited group of people in thesame trade or activity. But they proved terse, vivid, forcible and stimulatingso that later they broke out of their bounds and gradually gained wideacceptance. As a result, their early stylistic features faded in part, and manybecame part of the common core of the language and are now used in differentsituations.
Despite thefact, idioms are generally felt to be informal and some are colloquialisms andslang, therefore inappropriate for formal style. Occasionally, we find idioms,which are extremely formal and used only in frozen style[8;37].
The same idiommay show stylistic differences when it is assigned different meanings. Inaddition, slang expressions are often peculiar to social or regional varieties.Some may be used only in British setting; others may be suitable for certaingroups of people. All this needs care on the part of the user in the course ofproduction.
Apart from thestylistic features, idioms manifest apparent rhetorical coloring in suchrespects as of phonetic manipulation, lexical manipulation and figures ofspeech.
1. Phoneticmanipulation. This manipulation includes alliteration and rhyme.
2. Lexicalmanipulation. Lexical manipulation embraces repetition, reiteration(duplication of synonyms) and juxtaposition (of antonyms).
3. Figures ofspeech. Idioms are terse and vivid because of the copious images created bythem. Large numbers of idioms are used in their metaphorical meaning. Sinceidioms are peculiar to the native culture and language, many images appearexotic to foreign learners but are expressive, impressive and effective. Thefigures of speech, which can be found in idioms, are: simile, metaphor,metonymy, synecdoche, personification and euphemism.
Characterized bysemantic unity and structural stability, idioms do not allow changes as a rule.But structural stability is not absolute. When idioms are used in actualcontext, they do experience grammatical changes such as different forms ofverbs, agreement of personal pronouns and number and so on. Occasionally, wemay find changes in constituents of idioms: addition, deletion, replacement,position shifting, dismembering.
1. Replacement.In some idioms, a constituent may be replaced by a word of the same part ofspeech, resulting in synonymous or antonymous idioms.
2. Addition ordeletion. In some instances, some constituents can be added or deleted, whichdoes not affect the meaning of the idioms.
3.Position-shifting. The positions of certain constituents in some idioms can beshifted without any change in meaning.
4. Shortening.This occasionally occurs in proverbs and sayings, where only a part of them isused instead of the whole.
5. Dismembering.It is what I mean by breaking up the idioms into pieces, an unusual case of useof idioms particularly in literature or popular press to achieve specialeffect.
As we can see,idioms are very important elements of the language with a elaborate structureand various ways of expressing thoughts which can be effectively used both inliterature and for some practical purposes as well [27;328].
/>Chapter 2. Practical usage of theidioms in commercial advertising/>2.1. Manipulating by idioms. Foregrounding
Idioms arebright, short and image provoking as we mentioned before. This gives a lot ofopportunities to use them for advertising and product promotion.
Advertisershave as their rhetorical purpose the presentation and exhibition of a productor service and the exhortation and coercion of the potential purchasingpopulation to the extent that that population becomes actual. Simply put, advertiserstry by the various means at their disposal to get people to buy the product orservice advertised. Moreover, advertisers want potential purchasers to considerwhat is advertised to the exclusion of all other similar products or services [8;13]. They therefore attempt toconstruct an advertisement that will fully involve the attention of thepotential purchaser and which will have a suasive effect. Advertisers thuscreate a semiotic world in order to persuade their audience of the essential«rightness» of purchasing the product or service advertised.
Thecreators of most print advertisements, however, couple some kind of visualmaterial with ample linguistic material and, often, this linguistic material ismanipulated over and above the more commonly expected rhetorical uses oflanguage. What is meant here is that it is, of course, the case thatadvertisers will use language in as clever, tight, stylized, and suasive a wayas they can to persude someone to go out and buy the product or purchase theservice which is the subject and substance of the advertisement [19;180]. However, what often occursis that the very structure and form of language is additionally manipulated — we may say that rules are intentionally and sytematically broken -presumably toachieve an even greater, more salient, more pervasive, more penetrating, andultimately more persuasive effect on the viewer/reader. It is to this type ofmanipulation that we now turn.
Manipulationof linguistic form and structure implies that linguistic material beginningwith the smallest or most discrete of segments or forms and leading to quitelarge linguistic entities will be fashioned to undergo some change,transformation, mutilation, mutation that is relatively unexpected on the partof the viewer/reader. This is done clearly with the purpose of providinganother means of directing the viewer/reader's attention squarely onto what isthe subject and substance of the particular discourse in which the manipulationoccurs. In print advertising, this comes out to manipulating some linguisticitem — breaking a rule in somesystmeatic fashion — so thatmaximum suasive effect for the product or service advertised is achieved in andby the ad[10;81]. Itseems almost trivial to state that to the extent that the creator of anadvertisement can find and achieve more and more means and devices of gettingthe attention of the potential purchasing population riveted onto the productor service advertised and to the extent that these means have the suasiveeffect of getting the potential purchasers to view and consider the product orservice to the exclusion of all others, then the ad will have itsproportionately successful outcome — an increase in the actual purchasingpopulation for that product or service. The claim inherent here is thatmanipulation of linguistic structure and form over and above the commonlyunderstood and utilized rhetorical uses of language coupled with visualmaterial in print advertising will increase the probability of that happyeffect [4;49].
Onemust view the manipulation of linguistic entities as a type of foregrounding. Foregrounding is alinguistic process in which some elements, such as words, phrases, sentences,stressings, intonations, or the like are given prominence or made moremeaningfully significant by the communicator/language-user, in this case thecreator(s) of anadvertisement. The author utilizes the conceptual linguistic framework — asynthesis of the concepts and insights relating to foregrounding-as devised inHarris in order to examine and explain several advertisements (see theappendix) below. It is the contention herein that only by attempting to accountfor the knowledge of formal processes (in this case,«foregrounding/backgrounding» and, therefore, «communicativeintent») which are available to and utilized by communicators in discourse(here, advertising) do we avail ourselves of necessary and sufficientinformation to be able to interpret adequately the symbols each lexical,phrasal, or sentential utterance of the discourse conveys. This informationallows us to assign and to distinguish between possible meanings that theindividual brings to and takes from a particular environment. As Pelz says, The fact of the matter is that onlywhen meaning or sense is attached to words, linguistic expressions, tosentences, texts, indications, symptoms, syndromes, signals or to symbols -inbrief, to signs-do we deal with the semiotic concepts of meaning or with thesemiotic concepts of sense.
Thus,this is both an investigation into the syntactic, semantic, and pragmaticproperties of a sign and into appliedsemiotics, i.e., semiotic (here linguistic and communicational)methods are used to analyze some fragment of reality. Pelz mentions. Nonetheless, the results of theapplication of semiotic methods to a walk of life, field of knowledge, orbranch of art can be presented in the form of theorems which are subject toproofs, classifications, orderings, and some of which follow from othertheorems; to put it briefly, a system of knowledge, sometimes a scientificdiscipline which is precisely a semiotics of the given fragment of reality,appears.
Finally,investigations such as these may be viewed as abductions or «guesses»that are made regarding specific aspects of the studied culture (in this case,the «world» of the advertiement). These abductions arise from alinguistic theory of foregrounding and a communicative theory of languagebehavior. Virginia Fry mentions that these investigations are the type of«guess» that Peirce says takes the form of an hypothesis which thenrequires validation through concrete observation. She contends, furthermore,that guessing and confirming are often correlative and simultaneous activitiesrather than distinct processes and that what allows one to discriminate amongobservations and also to evaluate the trustworthiness and validity of thoseobservations is «canons of judgment,» a concept attributed to Hymes. Just as Fry contends that thedramatism of Burke and the semiotics of Peirce and Eco are distinct abductionsfor studying communication and culture, so we contend here that foregroundingand communicative intent are equally valid abductions for studying aspects ofthe communication and culture in advertising./> 2.2. Idiomatic language incommercials
It isimportant to clarify the linguisticmeans by which the material in the ads will be analyzed. Typically, in anysentence or longer piece of discourse, the communicator signals the intentionof bringing some element of information into prominence, i.e., the information is foregrounded. He or shemarks that element, emphasizes it, stresses it, or contrastively signifies itby manipulating various linguistic structures or devices. Concommitantly, otherelements are systematically backgrounded or disappear from the linguisticstring entirely. After Wallace Chafe, we may say that passivization of arelatively basic sentence such as «Tom kicked Harry» to «Harrywas kicked by Tom» or «Harry was kicked» is an example of thefairly well‑understood foregrounding/backgrounding phenomenon. Cleftingof the same sentence to «It was Harry whom Tom kicked» is anotherexample of the phenomenon of foregrounding. Chafe observes that foregroundingand backgrounding constructions or devices are concerned principally with howthe communicator presents certain information to the addressee (the auditor,the audience), thereby altering the meaning or significance of thatinformation. This choice of the linguistic device reveals some specialintention or decision, contrary in some sense to usual expectations, on thepart of the communicator and is, then, at the heart of the notion of«foregrounding.»
As KennethPike says, " A crucial characteristic of human nature is our ability toselect and guide into attention almost anything that we please."Essentially, then, foregrounding is a semiotic, linguistic process ofestablishing significance or special prominence given the intentions ordecisions of the communicator. By means of various linguistic devices, thecommunicator decides to mark, emphasize, stress, or contrast in a significantway, and this information, and this information alone, is conveyed tothe addressee (Cf.Harris 1981 or, especially with regard to markedness, Shapiro 1983). Inexamining the process of foregrounding with regard to the material in printadvertisemts, I will attempt to see how the manipulation and use of elements orforms in the sentences, here sound, morphological, lexical, phrasal,sentential, supersegmental, supersentential, and /or orthographic items, alterthe relative prominence of those elements and forms. In other words, I willattempt to reveal, by a careful, abductive, linguistically‑basedanalysis, the degree, type, and extent of meaningfulness conveyed by themanipulative use of items within the linguistic masterial of the selected adsand what, then, may be construed semiotically as the actual meaning of those items withregard to the rhetorical purpose of the ads.
Communicative Intent It is also important to clarify whatthe notion of communicative intentis and how I will use this notion to explain and describe the manipulation ofelements within the linguistic material of the ads. I refer to theinterpretation of communicative intent in the work of Albert Mehrabian as madeexplicit in his book, Silent Messages (1981), based upon earlier work byWiener and Mehrabian (1968). Although Mehrabian (1981) treats both thephenomena of verbal and non‑verbal communication, we center on hisnotions of the manipulation of «language» and how that manipulationis made manifest in the earlier Language Within Language.
Mehrabiansuggests that it is quite important to note «the numerous and frequentlyoverlooked subleties of speech itself that are a part of the expression offeelings and like‑dislike.» He maintains that the concept of approach‑avoidance, which hehas explained with reference to relatively non‑verbal communication, maynow be "… .helpful in understanding the seemingly arbitrary andstylistic aspects of speech, as well as the apparently inconsequentialvariations in implicit [non‑verbal] behavior."
Mehrabianclaims that many kinds of speech variations indicate the speaker's attempt toplace something at a spatial or temporal distance or otherwise to minimize thespeaker's relation to or involvement with the thing described. Mehrabian says, Variants of verbal avoidance subtlyminimize the speaker's responsibility for what he says by implying that thecontents of this message are obvious to everyone including himself; or thecontrary, that these statements are conditional and doubtful. Alternatively,responsibility is minimized by implying that the events were beyond the controlof the actors, one of whom may be the speaker.
Thus,by entwining a careful, linguistically‑based analysis with a explanationof communicative intent, I will attempt to reveal the degree, type, and extentof meaningfulness conveyed by the manipulation of linguistic material in theselected ads and what may then be construed as the actual meaning of those ads.In some sense, therefore, a reinterpretation of the manipulations in these adsalong the lines of the foregrounding phenomenon and the correlation of thatanalysis with the notion of communicative intent will reveal, abductively, thesemiotic «world» of the subject of the ads. Pelz sums it up very neatly from asemiotic perspective:
Thusthe theoretical foundations of semiotics… are always: first of all, logicand linguistics, since it is on them that the structure of theoreticalsemantics rests, and then the theory or methodology of the disciplines to whichwe apply semiotic methods. Theoretical foundations are, albeit indirectly,psychology and epistemology since interpretation of sign is a psychic andcognitive process, neurophysiology because thinking is an activity of livingorganisms, history and sociology, since the process of thinking occurs in timeand in a community. Such then are the foundations of semiotics.
Fromboth a linguistic and communicative point of view, then, we will perhaps beable to grasp what the creator(s) of an advertisement had in mind to say, or not to say, in the design andconstruction of the «best» means to achieve a suasive effect over thepotential purchasing population.
Manipulation of Forms In analyzing the content of theadvertisements below from a foregrounding perspective, it is immediatelyapparent that the advertiser manipulates forms and structures, i.e., makes decisions regardingwhich form or structure will appear in the surface sentence string, withinwell-understood linguistic categories. The advertiser intends the manipulation of — orbreaking of rules for — certain structures, primarily sound (or its equivalentin print), word formant, word, phrase, sentence, idiom, spelling, orthographicstyle and the like in order to convey different, more suasive meanings. Theanalysis utilized here proceeds both from an assumption of the validity of abduction [cf. inter alia, Fry'sexplanation of Peirce] as a bona fide scientific perspective and fromthe assumption of the existence of canonsof judgment (asserted by Hymes) as a means of discriminatingamong observations and evaluating the trustworthiness and the validity of thoseobservations. The analysis is a slight modification, therefore, of animplicitly abductive conceptual framework as constructed in Harris, From LinguisticTheory to Meaning in Educational Practice (1981), for the categorization,analysis, and treatment of linguistic structures that foreground or backgroundinformation.
Application Two essential principles areseemingly adhered to by advertisers in practically all linguistic manipulationsand it is important to state them at the outset [4;40]:
1) itis rarely if ever the case that one component, such as sound or word-form orlexical item, is manipulated in isolation; that is to say, rules are broken ormanipulations operated at several levels and are, therefore, inextricably boundup amongst several entities. Even, say, in the case of so simple an ad as thepicturing of a single bottle of Stolichnaya vodka with the words,«Stolichnaya The Vodka,» must we note that the viewer/readerof the ad is presented with a manipulation at several levels: one must knowthat the underlining (orthographic manipulation) of «the» refers tothe pronunciation of the item as «thee» (sound manipulation) and thatthis, in turn, signals a particular interpretation and use of the article otherthan «definiteness» (morphological manipulation), i.e., the is to be read as «theunique, the singular, the only» (lexical and idiomatic manipulation).
2)the last observation above leads immediately to this second principle — theviewer/reader must be familiar with the environment of the ad visually, on theone hand, and linguistically, on the other. This implies a maxim thatadvertisers must adhere to: «Fashion the ad visually and linguistically so that the potentialpurchasing population will recognize the visual material of the ad easily andwill also be familiar with the words, idioms, etc. that aremanipulated.»In other words, as an hypothetical linguistic example, onewould not expect an ad that involved the now almost archaic idiom «behoist on one's own petard» [to be defeated by one's own device] since thegeneral population would find the words and meaning opaque. The success of thead, then, would be marginal at best!
Inline with the above, let us review several ads and attempt to understand themanipulations in situ.
Avery simple, elegant manipulation is performed in providing a phoneticrendering of a word such as was done with lexical items such as«performance,» «manage,» or «direction» inRockewell International ads [13;35]. The purpose here was to draw the viewer/reader's attention,for example, to a word such as 'man-ijpaired with a dictionary-like definition in order to convey the notion ofRockwell's excellent record and competence in the aerospace, electronics, andautomotive industries. Clearly, this involves manipulation of sound rules andorthography, but also implies by the highly technical presentation a highlytechnical and ultimately competent company.
Often,one can find manipulations of sound that are referred to as alliteration, rhyming, and the like.In an ad for Ford Motor Company, a smiling, ten-person, car-assembly team isgrouped around a new, partially assembled Ford. «Body Builders.» isplaced squarely above. In addition to the familiar, comfortably-repeated sound,the viewer/reader is also impressed by the noun-noun compound that is, in fact,in this health-conscious age, a well-known bound idiom. The idiom conveys thenotion that the team is strong and dependable and so, therefore, will be theproduct. Similarly, an elegantly dressed couple, the male with gin-and-tonic inhand, the female with martini, are seated above a bottle of Beefeater LondonDistilled Dry Gin. Juxtaposed in the middle are the words: «BefittinglyBeefeater.» Here, besides the repeated sounds, the viewer/reader isenticed by a lexical item that is closely associated to British usage and whichconveys a «posh» connotation. Lastly, in a Myers's Original Rum Creamad, a bottle and a ladle that is filling a glass of the liqueur are placedbesides the rhyme: «Cream & Rum. Yum!» From both a sound andlexical perspective, a lucsious combination is achieved.
Often,the pronunciation of a word is purposely violated to achieve a particularlydramatic effect [27;327].This kind of punning is evidenced in an ad for Ford Escort. A red Ford EscortTurbo GT is pictured broadside. Remember, at the outset, the American penchantfor and love-affair with fast, red cars. There is a good deal of explanation infour tightly-worded, short columns below the picture of the car. Above are thewords, «Raise your standard of leaving.» The manipulation is achievedat the lexcial level, the sound level, and the idiomatic level. At thesyntactic level, the viewer/reader is impressed with the message that tellshim/her by means of an imperative sentence that purchase of the Escort willlead to the American dream of a «hotter» car and, therefore, a betterlife.
At amorphological level, we have manipulations such as in a Nissan advertisementfor a 4x4, flatbed truck. Over the words, «To sport,» we see a veryflashy, well-equipped, black Nissan 4x4 ST. Below this, occupying the lowerhalf of the frame, is the same flatbed now loaded with a flashy yellowmotorcycle and yellow-shirted motorcyclist/driver. This is above the words,«Or transport.» Note that this is to be considered more properly as amorpho-phonological manipulation in that the viewer/reader experiences thesimilar sound of the «sport/transport» alternation as well as thenecessity to re-form (morphologically) the word «transport» toconform with the word «sport.» Moreover, note that this is anallusion to the Shakespearean «To be or not to be,» but that this ismore of a veiled imperative than it is syntactically a rhetorical questionbegging of a decision. The message conveyed must be construed as somethinglike: «Here is the ultimate in sporty automobiles for you. Not only is itsporty but it will transport whatever you need or want and it will never loseits allure. Therefore, if you want to be the best, purchase the best!»
Anothertype of morphological manipulation is the pairing of a morpheme with anongrammatical counterpart or the creation of a pseudo-morpheme [13; 32]. In the case of the former,one is immediately reminded of the Seven-Up Corporation's eminently successful«uncola» ads in which the negative morpheme «un-» waspaired with a noun rather than an expected adjective. Clearly, we were nottalking of «Coke» here! In the case of the latter, we have as anexample the GTE Phone Mart ad which depicts products from the store with thewords, «How to keep up with the phoneses.» This pseudo-morpheme thencalls to mind the spelling and pronunciation of the Joneses and thenewly-created, phrasal pseudo-idiom sends the message: «If you want to beat the same socio-economic level as all your friends and neighbors, purchaseyour phones at our store.» In both cases, this purposeful rule-bending and-breaking rivets the viewer/reader's attention and conveys definitive andclear-cut messages regarding the «rightness» of purchasing theparticular advertised products.
Atthe lexical level, punning is at a premium. In an ad for Dexter shoes, we havea picture of a Dexter shoe worn by a foot and leg in a jean on one side and thesame Dexter shoe worn by a foot and leg in a dress pant on the other. The wordbelow says it all: «Ambidexters.» The fortuitous similarity of thecompany's name is capitalized upon to achieve a manipulation over the word«ambidextrous.» Although at first blush this seems only a lexicalmanipulation, as I have pointed out before, this is virtually impossible. Thepronunciation of the word hinges, of course, on the breaking and reforming ofsound rules as well [24; 82].
Lexcialmanipulations are often puns over well-known, bound idioms [10; 79]. We have examples such asthe Brooks ad for its running shoes («Roads Scholar.»), theLevi-Strauss advertisement for its painted denims («Painted Denims.Strokes of Levi's Jeanius.»), the Holland-America Trans-Canal ad for itsless-expensive voyage across the Isthmus («Connect the docks and save$600.»), the Nissan «Feel your Pulsar quicken.» ad, or theMartini & Rossi vermouth quip: «Martini & Rossi. In a glass byitself.» These all constitute manipulations at the levels of sound andspelling, «roads/Rhodes,» «genius/jeanius,»«docks/dots,» «pulse/Pulsar,» «glass/class» whichlead immediately to manipulations at the level of bound idiom: a Rhodesscholar, a stroke of genius, connect the dots, feel your pulse quicken, in aclass by itself.
Thisin turns leads, semiotically, to our messages: If one buys Brooks's shoes, onebecomes an expert in running on the roads; the idea of painted/colored jeans isa stroke of genius and one who wears them will be a fashion «genius»;one need only look at the map, connect the dots leading to the dock where oneembarks and the dock where one debarks to see how one is getting a good bargainin traveling with Holland-America across the Isthmus of Panama; if one drives aNissan Pulsar, one will be excited — one's pulse will quicken because it is anexciting car; if one drinks Martini & Rossi vermouth, one will be drinkinga product which is incomparable to others.
Sometimes,a lexical manipulation may be achieved by capitalizing on the meaning of aforeign word which happens to be part of the advertisement. A particularlypoignant example is Goodyear's depiction of its tires on a Pontiac Fiero:«Fiero means 'proud,» performance means Eagles." Here, apseudo-definition is concocted out of the fortuitous pairing of theforeign-named car with the advertised Goodyear tires. Out of this, theviewer/reader get notions of «proud performance = Eagles,» a ratherneat, albeit somewhat bogus, formulation.
Almostall syntactic manipulation emerges directly from lexical manipulation. Thepsychological term, «alter ego,» supports the manipulationsententially of «Alter your ego.» in an advertisement by Chevroletfor the purchase of its Celebrity Eurosprt car. «Moosehead Beer standshead and antlers above the rest» is the manipulation of the sententialidiom «One stands head and shoulders above the rest.» Smithsonianmagazine tells readers that «The F-Stops Here.» an allusion to thewonderful and qwuality pictures that are a hallmark of the magazine and a clearalteration of the sentential, well-known bound idiom: «The buck stopshere.» (In this same ad which depicts a huge lens, Smithsonian also quipsin tiny letters in the lower right corner: «2,000,000 subscribers puttheir money where their minds are.») Maxell Gold disks are proclaimed as«The floppy disk that turns Apples golden, keeps AT&T on-line, andmakes every Texas Instrument a gusher.» This multiple idiomed,multiple-allusioned advertisement contains manipulations at the morphological,lexical, idiomatic, historical, environmental, referential, and syntacticlevels.
Thereis more. Again at the level of sentential manipulation, Nissan tells us that aNissan Sentra XE going uphill in the photo implies that you must «Make thegrade, no matter what course you take.» An ad for Palm Springs,California, with all of its sights, relaxations, and refreshments, depicts abeautiful woman in a bathing suit lying on a floating mat in a pool with the appropriateand requisite male at her side. The caption tells us that «In times likethese, you need times like these.» A Seagram's Gin bottle poses as theletter «I» in between two gold letters, «G» and«N» with the caption: Seagram's Gin makes your screwdriver letterperfect." This is a somewhat long-winded sentential extension of thewell-known bound idiom, but it seems to achieve its rhetorical purpose [27; 313].
Up tothis point, we have avoided several ads inmy collection which manipulate in much the same way as the above but have theadditional dubious feature of being exploitative in a way that is, in myopinon, somewhat noxious. Of course, all advertisements exploit in the sense ofwanting to convey the impression of the «rightness» of the product orservice advertised. These ads, however, are different in that they typicallycontain manipulations aimed at the sexual appetite of the viewer/reader. Mostoften, but not always, the target is the American, purportedlyto-be-dominated-and-therefore-to-be-exploited female.
Whileit is clear that in a society and culture which makes a regualr habit, nay aritual, out of being titillated sexually, advertisers in that society can beexpected to attempt to capitalize on that tendency, one can hardly find areason for necessarily condoning such manipulation. It is not my purpose todiscuss it at length here. It is, indeed, the subject of an entirely differentpiece. I merely present a few examples for your interest and understanding:
Shofarkosher frankfurters and salamis depicts a very shapely female posterior in apair of almost revealing cut-off jeans. A package of Shofar kosher midgetsalami is crammed in one back pocket. The ad is titled «Little Nosh.»[Yiddish for «a little something to eat]. Suffice it to say that „salami“has a phallic connotation in the popular culture and let your imagination dothe rest!
In amilder yet equally exploitative fashion, Sassafras swimwear presents a photo offour very comely young ladies all dressed in fashionable, not particularly risque',swimwear. However, they are all posed full length, from the rear. The title ofthe advertisement is „Beach bums,“ an obvious allusion to theposteriors as well as to the well-known bound idiom. Solorflex somewhat lessmildly or subtley exploits males by depicting the very well-muscled andproportioned Ken Norton with the linguistic manipulation: „A hard man isgood to find.“ Lastly, an ad that drew so much criticism a few years backthat it was eventually pulled: the Canadian Black Velvet whiskey bottle isplaced under a very comely young woman in a strapless, black-velvet eveninggown. The caption, „Feel the Velvet Canadian“ is placed over thefigure in such a way that the words, „feel the,“ are squarely overher breasts. The seeming message: „If we men [and men as potentialpurchasers are the obvious target of the ads] would but purchase the whiskey,we may vicariously experience this woman's breasts.“ Again, this is a veryclever linguistic manipulation at the lexical and syntactic level. It is however,a poignantly exploitative and noxious example of the kind of semiosis Americanadvertising as an institution could well do without.
Thus, if weanalyze the language of commercials, we will clearly see how important is theuse of idioms in advertisement. Advertising occupies a central position in thelandscape of consumer culture. Advertisers commit major resources to findingout how the purchase of a product could fulfill consumer needs and desires — which may or may not have anything to do with the product's purpose. Whileadvertising's immediate goal may be the promotion of a specific item, itslegacy is a standard of values and behavior, which have made advertising copyinto idiomatic expressions. />2.3. Creative usage of the idioms. Extension and alteration
Here we willanalyze an extended idiom. Extended idioms were described in the introductionas being featured in their original form together with an additional piece oftext that somehow makes a comment on the idiom itself. This comment is oftenfairly concise and occurs in direct proximity to the idiom, either directlypreceding or immediately following it. The main effect provided by the commentis to draw attention to the literal meaning of the idiom.
Burnthe candle at both ends, then get rid of the smoke
This extendedidiom is found in an ad for a product by Comfort called Refresh, which issprayed onto clothes to remove smells, or as the slogan promises, it “putsfreshness back into clothes”. The entire background of the ad consists of apicture of a woman wearing a dress and a cardigan, but it seems to have beencut in two pieces, with the left half showing her at night in a dark and smokyroom, her hair slightly disheveled and her cardigan flailing open, revealingthe straps of her dress. In the right-hand half of the picture it is daytime,she standing in a brightly lit room with a desk and a computer visible in thebackground. Her hair has been combed and her cardigan is neatly adjusted. Thewoman is holding a spray bottle of Comfort Refresh in her left hand, sprayingits contents towards the smoky left-hand half of the picture. The idiom itself,burn the candle at both ends, is written across the smoky half of the picture,while the comment, then get rid of the smoke, is superimposed on the otherside. The idiom is partly motivated by conceptual metaphor(s), but it is also possiblethat conventional knowledge plays a part in forming mental images, at least forsome speakers. According to Szabó, the underlying metaphor behind thisidiom is energy is fuel for the fire, but it is unclear exactly what they meanand they fail to give a more detailed analysis. Presumably, if we understandenergy in terms of fuel for a fire, it means that we need energy to keep thefire burning, in this context perhaps the fire of life. My attempt at anexplanation would be that if we burn the candle at both ends, i.e. use up toomuch energy late at night and early in the morning, there will not be enoughleft.
Nighttime iswhen we recuperate and gather more energy, and if that time is cut short therewill be no fuel for the fire. However, is it not possible that some othermetaphor is involved as well, one that involves time rather than fuel for afire? One very common metaphor we use in order to understand time is by seeingit as a physical object, sometimes more specifically as a container, which wecan move in and out of, as in expressions such as We’re well into the centuryand He’s like something out of the last century, or as a moving object. In myview, burning the candle at both ends could be partly motivated by thismetaphor as well, if we think of a period of time as a bounded entity or slot,that can be shortened at both ends. The candle burning at both ends would thencorrespond to our night rest being shortened at both ends [24; 90].Interestingly enough, the reference in this ad is not specifically to the lackof energy that is caused by late nights out and early mornings, but rather itaddresses the problems associated with smoky venues and how to feel clean andfresh the next day. The focus is thus not on the short period of rest, but onthe short period of time in which you must get your clothes feeling freshagain. What our conventional knowledge tells us, and which could influence ourmental images associated with this idiom, is that it is often dark late atnight and early in the morning. Being up at these times would therefore requiresome form of light source, such as a candle, which then would have to be burnedat both ends of the day.
Regardless ofthe exact motivation behind the idiom, it is clear that the element smoke inthe comment is grounded both in the literal meaning of the idiom, according towhich a candle is burning, and in the wider situation associated with themetaphorical meaning of the idiom, i.e. the knowledge that late nights areassociated with going out to smoky bars or clubs, which is information that ispartly provided by the picture. Out of context, the idiom would perhaps bedifficult to understand, since our attention is drawn to its literal meaning bythe comment clause then get rid of the smoke. Gibbs et al., reporting onearlier studies by Gibbs, point out that “people do not ordinarily process theentire literal meanings of idioms,” which often results in a “double-take” whenthey encounter idioms in a non-metaphorical context [22; 127].
This is clearlywhat has been exploited by the makers of the ad in question. When reading theidiom burn the candle at both ends, we are more likely to access themetaphorical meaning, which is why we might react when we get to the wordsmoke, which triggers the literal meaning. This incongruity draws our attentionto the underlying metaphorical mappings, and allows us to access the inputspaces. The source domain object/fuel is elaborated as a candle space, whichcontains the candle, the process of burning, and the smoke, or perhaps rathersoot, that results from it. The target domain time/energy is instead elaboratedas a nightlife space, in which a person stays out late, frequents venues wherepeople smoke cigarettes, and as a result end up with clothes that smell of smoke.
In the headline,which may be understood as a conceptual blend, both these spaces are activatedat the same time, and a humorous effect is created by the double literalinterpretation of the element ‘smoke’ against both the inputs.
This makes thisexample similar to the double grounding constellation proposed by Feyaerts andBrône (in press), and it might also be argued that there is metonymictightening in the blend, since the smoke stands for the previous night out onthe town. In that input space, the smoke was one element among others, while inthe blend it represents all the others, and in fact forms the evidence that hasto be removed.
Аgood example of an altered idiom in commercial is following:
Comfortis in the eye of the beholder
This ad one forFocus contact lenses, which appeared in Marie Claire in March, 1997. The mainpart of the ad is taken up by a picture of a woman dressed in a white knittedpolo jumper, cuddling a fluffy toy animal that might be a teddy bear. Theheadline above the picture is written in white against a green background andreads Comfort is in the eye of the beholder, a variant form of the idiomaticexpression or proverb Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. As with theprevious ad, the headline is ambiguous and may be interpreted both literallyand metaphorically. Again, the fact that the idiom has been altered triggersthe otherwise non-salient literal meaning, but perhaps not as strongly as inthe previous ad, since Comfort is in the eye of the beholder may actually beunderstood in an entirely metaphorical sense, as opposed to Don’t get yourpanty liners in a twist, where a literal interpretation is inevitablyhighlighted.
Let us startwith the original idiom, which is partly motivated by the conceptual metaphor‘feelings are objects’ or in this case rather personal characteristics orabstract notions are objects. Being seen in terms of an object is what enablesbeauty to be located in different places, in this case in the eye of thebeholder as opposed to in the face of a woman. Fittingly enough, contact lensesare also objects that are located in the eyes of some beholders, namely thosewith poor eyesight. The source domain objects is elaborated as a more specificspace, which will be referred to as lenses, and it includes the simple scenarioin which lenses are worn or placed in a person’s eyes [22; 130]. In addition,we can identify two elaborations of the target domain feelings/characteristics, where one may be labeled comfort and the other beauty. In thecomfort space, there is the feeling of comfort, which exists in the opinion ofthe person experiencing the event, while in the beauty space; there is thecharacteristic of beauty, which exists in the opinion of the observer. In thealtered idiom in the headline, all these spaces are activated simultaneously,and contribute to the understanding of what it means to use the Focus lenses.Not only will they improve a person’s eyesight, they are also comfortable forthe wearer and make her/him look good in the eyes of other people. Moreover,all three input spaces may be understood to be reflected in the image, inparticular the comfort space, to which the warm jumper and cuddly toy belong,but perhaps also the beauty space, which in that case is reflected in the faceof the woman, and possibly also the lenses space, if we assume that the womanin the ad is wearing them. However, they are also signaled in the text orslogan at the very bottom of the ad, which says “see better,” “feel better” and“look better,” and these are of course linked to the three different inputspaces lenses, comfort, and beauty.
The alteredidiom in the headline may also be seen as a comment on the image, whichactually illustrates some examples of what comfort may involve, but at the sametime asks what it really means for something to be comfortable. Is it wearing awarm jumper and cuddling a fluffy toy as the woman in the picture is doing, oris it something else? That is all up to the beholder, which of course carries apossible negative implication as far as the aim of the ad is concerned. Are thecontact lenses really comfortable or is that also, metaphorically, in the eyeof the beholder?
The role playedby metaphor and conceptual blending in these creative examples shows that advertisinglanguage follows the same cognitive principles as everyday language, but manyprocesses, which are normally unconscious and therefore largely go unnoticedmay be highlighted and made more noticeable
/>Conclusion
In this paper wetried to analyze and identify the impact, which is produced by the usage of theidiomatic language on the recipient of the information in terms of thepragmatic aspect of the usage of idioms in commercials. To keep it simple,usage of idioms is a powerful source for creation of the desirable effect withthe potential customer. The basis of this phenomenon lies within thesophisticated subliminal organization of the idiomatic expressions. We do notsplit these expressions into parts but perceive them as a holistic thing.
The idioms arefound either in the headline or in the body copy of the ads and occur in twomain patterns, which we referred to as extended idioms and altered idioms,respectively. The extended idioms are found in their original form, accompaniedby an additional piece of text that is either a continuation of or a comment onthe idiom, hence the label. This comment or complement provides an elaborationon the idiom itself, sometimes by drawing attention to its literal meaning, asin Burn the candle at both ends. Then get rid of the smoke. In the alteredidioms, on the other hand, one lexical item has been replaced in a contextwhere in normal cases it would not be replaced, for example in Don’t get yourpanty liners in a twist, or syntactically altered in a way that does not occurin regular use. In short, the main difference is the location of the creativeor unexpected surface element—as a complement to the idiom or inside the idiom.Besides, every person has a clear and instantaneous image in mind that istightly welded with the particular idiomatic expression. So whereas themotivation of the promoters is quite clear, the mechanism of the linguisticinfluence through idioms leaves much to be learned about.
However, it isimportant to note that this paper does not state exactly what features aremapped or which conceptual links are established each time a particular idiomis deconstructed. Similarly, no claims are made as to how individual peoplewould interpret the ads and there is no suggestion that everybody wouldunderstand them in exactly the same way, which means that there are manyquestions that still need to be answered.
/>Resume
Курсова роботапід назвою «Ідіоми в рекламних слоганах. Прагматичний аспект» торкаєтьсяпроблеми вікористання ідіоматичниго словнику в рекламних оголошеннях таслоганах з огляду на прагматичний аспект використання фразеологізмів та їхпохідних.
Головнаметароботи полягає у дослідженні феномена ідіоми в англійській мові та використанняідіоматичних виразів як інструмента маніпуляциії свідомостю покупця.
Робота включає всебе декілька основних завдань:
- Проаналізувати ідіоматичнє мовлення,виділити основні типи ідіом
- Проаналізувати використання ідіом вусному мовленні і в сфері реклами
- Дослідити вплив ідіом на свідомістьпокупця
Об’єктомдослідження є ідіоматичні вирази та сталі вирази в англійській мові, шовикористовуються в рекламі як ідіоми.
Суб’єктомдослідження є використання ідіом в рекламі(друкованій та на телебаченні) з огляду на прагматичний аспект.
Роботаскладається зі вступу, двох частин, висновків, резюме та списку використаноїлітератури.
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