History of American Literature

Higher andSecondary Special Education Ministry of the Republic of Uzbekistan
 
Gulistan StateUniversity

«History ofAmerican Literature»

Guliston‑2005

Introduction
 
In the tenth century brave Scandinavian sailorsreached the Western coast of the Present USA. On 12th of October 1492Christopher Columbus landed on one of the islands (in the region of Cuba).About 1500 Florentine Amerigo Vespuchi came to the shores of the New World. Butonly at the beginning of the XII century did Europeans begin to open up WesternCoasts of the North America. At that time the Spaniards founded settlements alongthe Atlantic coast (in the territory of the present day Florida, Georgia and SouthCalifornia). The Dutchmen settled in the district of Hudson. In Manhattenisland (Hudson-) 1613 the Dutch settlement became New Amsterdam. In 1604Frenchmen founded the first settlements in Canada. Englishmen set about tocolonize America, a little later, the first English colony was Virginia whichwas founded in 1607. In 1620 «Mayflower» brought from England the firstdetachment of the colonists = puritans, who founded New Plymouth (near present dayBoston). Later near that place there sprang up New Hampshire, Massachusetts,Rhode Island and these united under the name of New England. In 1634 thereappeared Maryland and in 1681 William Penn founded the Quaker colony,Pennsylvania.
American Literature can not be captured ina simple definition. It reflects the many religious, historical and culturaltraditions of the American people, one of the world's most varied populations.It includes poetry, fiction, drama and other kinds of writing by authors inwhat is now the US. It also includes non written material, such as the oral literatureof the American Indians and folk tales and legends. In addition, Americanliterature includes accounts of American written by immigrants and visitorsfrom other countries, as well as works by American writers who spent all oftheir lives abroad.
The United States became an independentnation by winning the Revolutionary War in America (1775–1783). Much of theliterature of this period addressed issues relating to American independence.
American literature begins with thelegends, myths and poetry of the American Indians, the first people to live inwhat is now the US. Indian legends included stories about the origin of theworld, the histories of tribes and tales of tribal heroes. With rare exceptionsthis oral literature wasn't written down until 1800's.
The earliest writing in Americaconsisted of the journals and reports of European explorers and missionaries. Theseearly authors left a rich literature describing their encounters with new landsand new civilizations. They publicized their adventures, described the NewWorld, and tried to attract setllers in words that sometimes mixed facts withpropaganda.
Colonists from England and other Europeancountries began settjing along the eastern coast of North America in the early1600's and created the first American colonial literature. The colonies inVerginia and New England produced the most important writings in the 1600's. Inthe 1700's, Philodelphia emerged as the literary center of the Americancolonies.
Captain John Smith wrote what is regardedas the first American book, «A True Relation of… Virginia (1608). It describeshow he and other colonists established the first permanent E. settlement in Americaat Jamestown, John Smith wrote «A Description of New England) in 1616. Smith tolda version of the famous story of Pocahontas in The General Histories ofVirginia, New England and the Summer Isles (1624). The story claims that Pocahontas,the daughter of an Indian chief, saved Smith's life when her father was about tohave him killed.
In «The History of the Present State of Virginia»(1705) historian Robert Beverley wrote about the tragic destruction of theAmerican Indians.
To Beverley, the Indians representedpossibilities for happiness, innocence, harmony and freedom. In 1620, the Pilgrimsfounded Plymouth Colony the second permanent E.settlement in America. ManyPilgrims belonged to a group of E. Protestants called Puritans.
The Puritans recorded their own history outof a desire to communicate with fellow believers in England, to attract newcoloniests, and to justify their move to a new country. Cotton Mathew wrote morethan 400 works on many subjects.
Historical works aimed at recording thelife of the Puritans, their journey to America, and the major events, as well asthe everyday chronicle, of their life in the New World. William Bradford, «Historyof Plymanth Plantation». Adward Johnson «History of New England», Coblun Mather«Masnalia Christi Americana». Underlying all these writings, one always finds theidea of Providence; the worldwhich is described is always seen as a reflectionof the divine order so that constant analogies are drawn between the beauty ofnature and the still of the Architect who created it. Sermons were by far themost common sort of literature in American Colonial communities totally controlledby the church. Dozens of ministers published the sermons that they had written,the best known being those of Thomas Hooker, Increase and Colton Mather.
In spite of the Puritans admiration for theclassics and poets like Milton, poetry was often distrussed for appealing formuch to the senses and the imagination.


John Smith(1580–1631)
John Smithlived a life crammed with adventure and achievement during a great age ofexploration. It had not taken long for adventurers and merchants to begin toexplore the New World Columbus had discovered. The Spanish to the south, theFrench to the north, the English along the mid-Atlantic coast, the Dutch, theSwedes, the Portuguese – all of Europe seemed to be moving west. By Smith’stime, about 1600 exploration and the search for gold were still important, butthe desire to establish permanent settlements was growing. Smith strong-willed,imaginative, a born leader – was in the right place at the right time.
In 1607 thefirst permanent English settlement Jamestown, Virginia, was formed. It was madeup of one hundred men and four boys, and the man in charge was the twenty-sevenyear-old Captain John Smith. The colony would not have survived without JohnSmith. As it was, over half the colonists died during the first winter. Aftertwo years in Jamestown, Smith returned to England.
In 1614 agroup of English merchants, who hoped to get rich from gold, whale oil, andfurs, financed a six-month expedition to New England for Smith. He explored thecoast of Main to Cape Cod, made maps, traded with Indians, and went back toEngland, never to return to America. Yet Smith wanted to return as we can seefrom his «Description of New England», published in 1616. Although he callsthis work a description, Smith’s main purpose is not to describe but topersuade. This pamphlet is essentially and advertisement, a kind of seventeenth– century «commercial». It is an effort to raise money for another newexpedition and to convince Englishmen to join Smith in establishing a newcolony of which he hoped to be governor.
TheUnited States became an Independent nation by winning the Revolutionary War inAmerica (1775–1783). Much of the literature of this period addressed issuesrelating to American independence.ThomasPaine soon became famous for his fiery essays insupport of the American patriots. His pamphlet «Common Seuse»(1776) called for complete independence from Great Britain. In a series ofpamphlets called «The American Crisis» (1776–1783), he encouraged the rebels topersist during the darkest days of the Revolutionary War.James Hector St. John De Creve Coeur the French – bornessayist (1735–1813), helped the colonists think of themselves as Americanrather than Europeans. Crevecoeur saw America as a new land where individualscould throw off old Prejudices, suffocating social Customs, and tyrannicalgovernment.
Franklin,Paine and Creve Coeur wrote in disnified, but Plain and clear, prose. Thisstyle reached its peak in the ringing eloquence of the «Declaration ofIndependence» written by Thomas Jefferson. The same type of writing appears inthe sober language of the Constitution of the U.S-s, much of which was drattedby Gonverneur Morris, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay used thisclear style in «The Federatist» (1784–1788), and series of public letters thatpersuaded New Yorkers to ratify the Constitution.
 
William Cullen Bryant
William Cullen Bryant merits a claim to be one ofAmerica’s first naturalist poets. Born after the Revolutionary War, Bryantturned to nature as a source for poetic inspiration. «Thanatopsis», the name ofhis most famous nature poem, is a Greek word meaning «view of death». Theopening lines assert:
To him who in the love of natureholds
Communion with her visible forms,she speaks
A various language…
Edgar Allan Poe, was also a masterof the prose tale. A gifted, tormented man, Poe thought about the properfunction of literature for more than any of his predecessors, with the resultthat he became the first great American literary critic…
The next great American Romanticist,however, drew on America for both characters and seltings, and his work, thoughtheoretical and philosophical, does mirror the attitudes and moves of the time.He was a Shy New Englander named Nathaniel Hawthorne. Although he wrote nopoetry his short Stories and novels still rank among the best that America hasproduced.
Abolitionism. Harriet Beacher Stowe «UncleTom’s Cabin»
Transcendentalism. Ralph Waldo Emerson,the «Great Awakener» the founder of Transcendentalism, deeply influencedAmerican literature. His Speeches «The American Scholar» (1837) and «DivinitySchool Address» (1838). His treatise «Nature» (1836). In 1840 startedpublishing «The Deal», the Transcendentalism review. 1841. Essays, firstseries. (Second series in 1844). 1845–1846 «Lectures on Representative Men»(published 1880); Poems.
 
Literatureof a young nation (1788–1917)
 
WashingtonIrving rose to fame with humorous and its past in the magazine «Salmagundi»(1807–1808) and in a book, «A History of New York from the Beginning of theWorld to the End of the Dutch Dynasty (1809). The book is also called «Knickbocker’sHistory of New York» because Irving wrote it under the name DiedrichKnickerbocker. In «The Sketch Book of Geoffren Crayon,» (1819–1820), Irvingcombined the style of the essay and the sketch to create the first shortstories in American literature. The book includes «Rip Van Wirkle» and «Thelegend of Sleepy Hollow» two of Irving’s most famous tales. In «Rip Van Wirkle»the title character awakens from a 20‑year sleep to find everythingchanged by the Revolutionary War. Irving’s doubts about American independence,his hostility toward New E-d culture, and his desire to mountain cultural tieswith E-d run through all his early writing.
Thepoet William Cullen Bryantadapted the style of E. romantic poetry todescribe the American landscape and to find moral significance in its beauty.Such poems as «Thanatopsis» (1817), «To a Waterfowl» (1818), and «To theFringed Gentain» (1832) reflect Bryant’s admiration of nature.

Originof the American Novel. Hugh Henry Brackenridge (1748–1816)
 
Hugh HenryBrackenridge was Scotch. He came to America still a child and he grew up inPennsylvania. In 1768 he entered the Princeton University. On graduating fromthe University Brackenridge worked at school. During the War for Independencehe served as a priest in the revolutionary army.
In1776 he wrote his poem «Battle at the Banker Hill» and his play «GeneralMontgomery’s Death» appeared.
Afterthe War he moved to Pittsburgh; there he edited a newspaper and took an activepart in the social life of the country, he supported Jefferson’s party. Hebecame the Member of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania. The activity suppliedhim with material for his satirical novel «Modern Chivalry» («Современное рыцарство»). The firstpart of which saw the world in 1792 and the second one came into existence in1805. Brackenridge is seen in this novel as the founder of American realisticnovel.
Thewriter showed how the American bourgeoisie used democratic aciements of therevolution for their goals =aims; how the American bourgeoisie streugthenedit’s rule (господство) ModernChivalry is written in spirit of the English Englighteument novel of the XVIIIcentury. The heroes of the book are Captain John Tarrago and his servant fromIreland Treg O – Riggee. They visit distant plays of the frontier, they were atinns, fairs; they watehed Eleetious to the local. Captain Farrago was well readand clever man. Being a democrate he does not believe American democracyblindly; he could see its dark sides as well.
Hetried to bring up honest citizens of America showing them the «stupidity ofambitious pretentious «Braskenbridge’s traditions would be continued and deepenedby the realists of the XIX century.
 

TheEra of Expansion (1831–1870)
During the mid1830’s the United States gained control of Texas, California, Oregon, and otherwestern lands. The Indians who occupied many lands from coast to coast wereforced to surrender their claims and to resettle an reservation.
Toglorify the frontier
Topraise the beauty of nature
In1861, The Civil War broke out between the North and South. The North won thewar in 1865.
Twomain forms of fiction were practiced by American writers in the mid – 1890’s:1) the sentimental novel and 2) the romance.
Thesentimental novel, which had been developed by author Samuel Richardsonin the mid – 1700’s, became immensely popular in the United S-s in the mid –1800’s. This type of novel emphasized feelings and such values as religiousfaith, moral virtue, and family closeness. Its stress on traditional valuesappealed to many people during a period of rapid social and political change.
Thesentimental novel also used reform. It became the means for rousing concernabout the plight of black slaves, poor people, and other unfortunate members ofsociety.
 
BenjaminFranklin (1706–1790)
Hewas born in 1706 in Boston, the son of a tallow-chandler. In 1718 he became aprinter’s apprentice. In 1722 he began to write satirical papers under the name«Silens Dogood» for the «New England Courant» as a writer – enlightener. He wasa philosopher, scientist. In 1729 he came to Philadelphia and found work as aprinter. In 1726 set up his own press. In 1727 Benjamin created the «Junto Club»for the pursuit of scholarly knowledge.
In1729 he bought the «Pennsylvania Gazette», it was later turned into «SaturdayEvening Post». In 1732 he started issuing «Poor Richard’s Almanack». In 1742 heinvented the Franklin Store and this is a collection of proverbs moralreflections, advertisements, recipes and advice, also remained popular forgenerations. In 1743 he founded the American Philosophical Society. In 1751 hemakes experiments and observations in Electricity. In 1757 he went to London,as an agent for the Pennsylvania Assembly. In the same year he published «TheWay to Wealth». During 1765–1770 he is very active against the Stamp Act inLondon.
In1771 Benjamin wrote the first part of his «Autobiography». In 1775 he was sentas a delegate to the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia. In 1776 hehelped draft the Declaration of Independence. He is sent to Paris to negotiatethe treaty of alliance. In 1783 he signed the Treaty of Paris. In 1784 hestarted working on the «Autobiography» again. In 1785 he returned to America.He wrote against slavery. Died in Philadelphia in 1790.
In1773 he wrote a satirical pamphlet «Rules by which a Great Empire May BeReduced to a Small One». In 1784 he published another pamphlet in England «RemarksConcerning the Savages of North America» in defense of American Indians. Hissatirical pamphlet «On the Slave Trade» became his political precept – will.
HermanMelville called him «Jack of all trades, master of each and mastered by none –the type and genius of his land…» and indeed Benjamin Franklin’s life bearstestimony to the variety of his pursuits and talents. It is the story of agradual rise to power and a constant success: as a printer, and a scientist (hestudied earthquakes, invented bifocal spectacles, was the first American toenter the Royal Society of London for his discoveries on electricity), in hismunicipal responsibilities in Philadelphia (where he created both a firecompany and a police force, and introduced paving), and in his national dutiesas a tireless diplomat. He was the perfect representative of the Enlightenment,of the tolerant, reasonable, scientific intellect of the 18thcentury, believing in the perfectibility of man.
Franklin’swritings are the varied – essays, letters, speeches, satirical works-but hisliterary masterpiece is his «Autobiography». Written in a simple and directstyle aimed at being understood by all, it relates his rise to success andmaturity. Through the varied steps and careers of his life, we see him assumingdifferent poses and roles which the elderly narrator describes with lucidityand distance. His pragmatic insistence on virtue, industry and self – reliancewas later to be criticized as «bourgeois» and «utilitarian», but there is deepsincerity in the «Autobiography»; one feels that Franklin tried to better hisfellowmen’s physical, intellectual and social conditions, that he was mainlyconcerned with the «common benefit of mankind».
Franklin’sfirst book, «Poor Richard’s Almanac» also remained popular for futuregenerations.
1.Over 200 tears ago, Benjamin Franklin wrote:
«Therapid progress true science now makes occasions my regretting something that Iwas born too soon. It is impossible to imagine the heights to which may becarried, in a thousand years, the power of man over matter. Oh, that moralscience were in as fair a way of improvement, that men woiuld cease to bewolves to one another, and that human beings would at length learn what theynow improperly call humanity!» In your own words explain what Franklin meant bythis statement and then in a short written essay, agree or disagree with hispoint of view as it applies to your life.
Apiblic-spirited citizen – Yet, civic affairs was only one of his manyinterests.
Hewas also a scientist, patriot, businessman, statement, and man of the world
Franklin,the Scientist,
Franklin,the Patriot,
Franklin,the Businessman,
Franklinthe Statesman.

CharlesBrockden Brown (1771–1810)
Charlesbrockden Brown was born in Philadelphia in the familty of hereditary gentlemanby birth colonist His father was a trader. He prepared his son to theprofession of a lawyer. Having left the lawschool Brown began engage himself asa lawyer, but in 1798 he left advocate’s office, he did not want to stay as adefender of unjustice. Brown went to New York where he devoted himself whollyto litrary activity writing eight novels for four years. Simultaneously hepublished «Monthly Magazine and American view «(from 1799 by 1803) on the pagesof whose he published his own stories and excerpts from his own novels. Litrary– critical activity he did not give up ever.
Brown belongedto a new past-war seneration of American writers. He grewv in the conditious ofstrengthened bourgeois system. Brown lost ties with paine and Frenan. For aimHamilton the leader of feduralists was not private enemy; and Brown wrote abouthim sympatheticobituary but true did not lose ties with French and English Enlightenment,with Godwin, the influence of the latter on Brown is felt in his novels.
The crisis ofEnlightenment novelis seen in Browns interests to the heroes with ill, cofusedsouls, to the mysterious and intricate adventures to fatal mysteries. The lifebecame more complicated incause of the development of bourgeois relations. Thepower of money drew the death of patriarchal moral and manners. In thiscondition instead of Enlightenment nvels there appear Gothic novels full ofhorrors and mysteries. His first novel «Wieland» (1798) came into being andwhere the author coudemnsamusing literature
Brown defendsthe unity of meaning and form. In the article «Standards of Taste» (1806) Brownstates that the meaning gives dignity an dweight to the worle not a form. Hesays that 6he form without meaning looks like a nut without kernel; itdiappoints. Brown was the first in American literature to speak about literarycritics tobe a science. Brown states that literature hasthe task to enlishtenpeople and it snould serve social aims. He made an invention= discovery thereason of unhappines of a mans roots in (is founded on) not on his nature, butits reason is in social institutions.
Brown’seasthetics prepared the appearance ofromanticism.
On Browns roadwent Hawthorne, Edgar Poeand Lippard. The narration is made on the name ofClara Wieland – the heroes (Theodore’s) sister. The next novel is «Ormond» («Ормонд «,1799) in this novel the author makes one more step in the owning with Americanmaterial. Stephen Dadleya New Yorkdruggist is honest and kind=well disposed. Heis ruined by his adroitand inscrupulous impudent apprentice. Crais and to whomhis drugstorepassed. To support his family Dadley becomes a clerk in a law.
Ormond isDadley’s acquantance, Whoseves Dadley’s from hanger daeth. But later it turnsout that the young man is a villain scoundrel. Ormond’s aim is to seduce=pervert Coustance. It was he who made Stephen Dadley poor using Craig as awqeapon. Ormond had already enticed one girl. His next saerife became Constance.The real hero of the novel is Constance.
A month laterBrowns next novel «Arthur Mervin» appeared «Edgar Huntley, or Memoirs of theSleep – Walker» aws published in July1799.
«Clara Howard»(1800) and «Jane Tacbot» (1801) are novels which have happy end.
 
GeneralCharacteristics of American Romanticism
Romanticism,transcendentalism and abolitionists writers reflected complex, contradictorypictures of the first half of the XIX century development of American society.They leaned upon the aesthetics of Romanticism, which was the leading literaryschool of those years. Appearance in America was inevitable historically aswell as in European literatures. American romanticism had the same historicalprecondition and it rested on the same aesthetically basic and methods asEuropean romanticism. American romanticism sprang up on the soil of theAmerican revolution of 1775–1783 by some of the results. The principles oflife, liberty and the pursuit of happiness declared in the Declaration ofIndependence came to a contradiction with social and economic structure, whichsecured freedom & happiness of only rich owners.
Humdrumthe life of the American middle class society spurned the writers with itsprisms, dry practicality & narrow – mindedness of approach. Theromanticists tried to contradict such prisms in either the life of the Indians,which had not yet been defined with capitalist civilization, or the Reich ofromantic dreams of higher & more reasonable system.
Inthis way, there sprang up, peculiar to the aesthetics of romanticism,contradictions between the dreams & reality. For the romanticists itwas characteristic to the material worried, in aspiring to contradict realitywith abstract ideals. Romanticists sought their ideals outside real life, inthe realism of dreams, because they couldn’t their ideals in the images takenfrom reality. Rejestiny the unattractive middle class worlds the romanticistsimposed an invented world through their dreams. They also fried to depict reallife, but the peculiarity of their creative methods defined the specific characterand its reflection.
Events &stages in the romanticists works rise above the pettiness of every day life.The prosaic middle class is put against high romantic natures & everyday practical interests as opposed to the struggle of mighty passions. Creationof fantastic characters who act in fantastic, imaginary situations – such werethe methods of romantically typification & American romanticliterature is not an exception to this. Romanticists consciously digressed fromthe ordinary, from the conditions of every day life, from every day concretedefinition. In their artistic generalization, they were attracted by thesymbolic & allegorical. Hidden & incomprehensible forromanticists were the reasons of social phenomena.
Allthe same, romanticism was a step forward in the development of literature. Theromanticists widened the notion about life & deepened theunderstanding of life. They approached beauty of nature in a new fashion &they revealed deeply emotional perceptions of social existence.
Themain achievement of romanticism was a steady attention to the inner world ofman, to his spiritual life. The romanticists opposed the cult of sense, thecult of human passions, preferring enlightenment cult of realism. Thanks to it,they were able to express their protest against the suppression of thepersonality & to expose the complexity of people’s spiritual life atthe beginning of the XIX century.
Togetherwith European romanticists, American writers of this direction widened theborders of world of knowledge for people of those days.
Americanromanticism had to understand a new, very contradictory & intricateworld dying & being born again to understand new human interrelations,to refuse the settled & to dealer new criteria. It was extremelydifficult. The romanticists were distressed, they sought, they foresaw. Theywere delighted with life. They struggled for the best, they appreciated theresent past & present, then created the images of indomitable heroes &rebels, who were full of high passion such as: recalcitrance, anger &the thirst for justice.
Allromanticist theories glorified the individualistic ideal of human behavior, butnone of them explained individualism with regularities of social development.This differentiates romanticism from realism.
Romanticismis an effective method of artistic mastery the assimilation of reality withoutwhich the process of the aesthetic development of any nation world not is full.
Romanticistswent from the life of an individual to the life of the country, not payingattention to social groups, layers or classes.
Americanromanticists did not have a single ideological program, which they could defendin their works. Besides the transdentalists’ club, there was no romanticists’group, schools or trends. Washington Irving was alone in his Anglo – Americanposition as «a intermediary» between Europe & America. NathanielHawthorn was also single in his fight against Puritanism. Edgar Allow Poe wasin literary & social isolation. Herman Mellville’s name was crossedout from literature when he still was alive. Yes!
But=Yet all of them were united in their protest against middle class morals,policy & aesthetical estimation, in their customs.
Thesharpness of real contradictions determines the strife of romanticists toabstract & to oppose «the beautiful with the ugly» & «goodwith evil». Positive is raised & negative is lowered. That is whelp inthe creative methods of romanticists contrasting engage much place, we cannotice the melioration for the exceptional & unique & thetitanium of amigos & underlined hyperbole in the description ofnatural elements.
Romanticistsintroduce dramatic conflicts with mysteries & «fatal» chance –fortuity; the plot acquires of adventurous heralds, the intrigue is intricate,the hero’s have sudden turns & troubles.
Theheroes have a lot of obstacles. The events develop dynamic & theconclusion almost unexpected.
Theidea of national originality & the idea of national character aretypical for American romanticists. It was the American romanticists who raisedthe flag for Independent American literature not dependent upon Europeanliterature. They became the creators of the national literature of their mothercountry; they became the historians of the past & the judges of theirpresent. This function will be inherited by the literature of a later deeded –of the critical realism.
Eachof the romanticists tried to find his ideal outside the middle class surroundings &middle class practices & with it underlining antipoetic character ofthe «mercenary word».
WashingtonIrving searched the ideal in the patriarchal surrounding of the colonists ofthe XVIII century & he created a poetical image of «old worldly»America; Fenimore Cooper & Herman Melville considered the ideal thefree life of uncivilized nations of the islands of the Pacific or the Indians;S. Judd & I. Hippard searched for support in Christian socialism.
EdgarAllan Poe (1809–1849)
EdgarAllan Poe is certainly one of the best known and most popular of Americanwriters. His stories are read by children, probed with the tools ofpsychoanalysis by critics, and transformed into films. His poems, notably «TheRaven», «To Helen» and «Annable Lee», are widely anthologized. And his criticalnotion that a poem should be readable in a single sitting so as not to mute itssingle effect is a familiar critical principle. More importantly, Poe’s poetictheories, outlined in such pieces as «The Poetic Principle», «The Rationale ofVerse» and «The Philosophy of Composition, had a profound influence on theFrench symbolist movement.
Beforehe became a famous poet and short – storey writer, Poe was known as ajournalist and magazine editor. He wrote numerous reviews about works nowforgotten while producing his own memerable tales and poems. And though henever realized his dream of founding a literary magazine of his own, be contributedto many, including those he edited. Aa a writer for popular periodicals likethe «Broadway Journals» and Graham’s «Lady’s and Gentleman’s Magazine», and asan editor of literary periodicalssuch as the «Southern Literary Messenger» Poecame to understand very well the audiences who read his work. He aimed hiswork, as he wrote, «not above the popular, or below the critical, taste»turning the fictional conventions of his own time to odd account. In tales suchas «Ligeia» and «The Fall of the House of Usher», for example he put hispersonal stamp on the gothic horror story. He remodeled the tale of explorationin works like «A Descent into theMaelstorm», and he developed the genre of thedetective story, or «tale of racionation» as he called it, with such stories as«The Gold Bug», «The Murders in the Rue Morgue», and «The Purlioned Letter».Still another genre he touched on was science fiction with his fantastic story»The Balloon Hoax». As various as was Poe’s genius and as varied as were thefictional subgenres he worked in, one element of his work remains consistent:his concern with the workings of the human mind.
Writersas diverse as Bandelaire and Dostoevsky admired Poe’s work. Bandelaire, whotranslated many of Poe’s tales, in fact, acknowledged Poe’s influence bywriting that if Poe hadn’t existed Bandelaire would have had to invent him.Dostoevsky was unstiuting in his praise of Poe’s revelations of minds at warwith thenselves. Although Dostoevsky’s own explorations of extreme states ofconsciosness and his dramatic depictions of behavior honed by guilt are moreambitious and monumental than Poe’s sketches and tales, the Russian writer felta kindship with Poe.
Poe’slife was as tormented as the minds of his stories narrators. He was born to itinerantactors in Boston. His father died when he was a year old and his mother a yearlater. Edgar was and his brother and sister were taken as foster children intothe Rome of a Richmond tobacco merchant, John Allan. Poe was educated inEngland and at the University of Vifginia, where he was provided withinsafficient funds for food, books, and clothing by John Allan. Living amongwealthy young men, Poe resorted to gambling, wich further worsened hisfinancial situation and contributed what was an already seriously strainedrelationship with his foster father, who disapproved of his literary ambitions.The upshot was that Poe withdrew from the university and was left to make hisown way as an author.
In1837 he moned his familyfrom Baltimore to New York, where he published his onlyfull-length fictional work, «The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym». In 1840 hepublished his «Tales of the Grotesqu and Arabesque» (1840). Poe borrowed theterms «grotesque» and «arabesque» from the Romantic poet and novelist SirWalter Scott, and meant them to suggest the terror associated with the bizarreand the beautiful associated with the poetic. He also meant to suggest thatboth elements were present in many stories in his collection.
«TheFall of the House of Usher» is among Poe’s most famous and most accomplishedtales. The house that falls is both the literal Usher habitation and the familyit signifies. The house also represents the mind of Roderick Usher. In itsdensity of detail, bizarre events, and uncanny tone, the story suggest gothicfiction. In its psychological richness and fainted family history, it reachesback to Greek tragedy.
«TheCask of Amontillado» examplifies Poe’s genius at displaying a mad narratorwhose intent is to convince his listeners of his sanity. Perhaps Poe’s best –known example of this type is the narrator of «The Tell – Tale Heart». But «TheCask of Amontilado» is an even richer story, with Poe pulling out all the stopsin displaying multiple ironies while his narrator fels compelled to tellsomebody of the perfect murder he committed fifty years before. The question iswhy he tells this tale after so many years.
In«The Purloined Letter» Poe gives way to his bent for stories of crime andpunishment, this time from the outside point of view of the detective ratherthan from inside the criminals mind. Rather than considering what he would havedone in like circumstances, the detective, Monsieur Dupin, must try to thinkthe way the criminal thought, which is precisely what he does en route to tosolving the case. The story celebrates Poe’s appreciation of the rational mindand contains a number of examples of riddles and games in which Poe delighted.It also ends with an elaborate puzzle built on a complex literary allusion,which contains the key Poe uses to unlock the inticacies of the story’s plot.
Poe’sfictional performances delighted audience in his own time continue to engageand intrigue readers today. Even though his style is ornate and his languagefar from colloquial, he remains a most readable writer, largely because hebuilds suspense, creates atmosphere, and probes the psychological complexitiesof his characters’ minds and hearts. If it is the horror of his stories thatfirst draws readers in, it is Poe’s psychological richness and his control oftone that continue to bring them back for repeated readings of some inmatchablestories.
TheTranscendentalists
Transcendentalism emerged in the30ies. This time witnessed noticeable sharpening of capitalist contradictions.People began their strikes, workers uprising and unions helped the appearanceof romanticists, who stood agains mercantalism. There began chasses afterdollars. The new literary trend leaked upon the aesthetics of romanticism andit was a new branch of romanticism.
In 1836 there was founded «TranscendentalistClub» at the head of which stood Ralph Waldo Emerson. The members of the Clubwere Henry David Thorean (1817–1862), Teodore Parker, George Reeply, AmosAlcolt, Elizabeth Pibody, Margaret Fuller (1810–1850) and others.
Transcendentalism is a specificAmerican philosophical and literary trend.
To transcend something is to riseabove it, to pass beyond its limits.
Transcendentalism is based on thebelief that the most fundamental truths about life and death can be reachedonly by senses. The transcendentalism believed that each and every man andwoman living as a true individual, free from restrain dogma and dull habits ofthought, could know something spiritual reality but could not know it throughlogic or the data of the senses.
Transcendentalists did not have astrict doctrine or code. This trend is more a tendency, an attitude, than it isa philosophy.
Nature played an impotant role inthe trenscendentalist view. Nature was divine, alive with spirit, the humanmind could read nature, find truths in it. To live in harmony with nature, toallow one^s deepest intaitive being to communicate with nature, was a source ofgoodness and inspiration.
The trnscendentalists believed thatdeep intaition of a stiritual reality is available to us only if we allowourselves to be individuals, and Transcentalist writing places a strongemphasis on individualism.
Trenscendentalists assert that thepowers of the individual mind and soul are equally available to all people.These powers are not dependent upon wealth or background or education. We allhave a potential equality as spiritual beings, and the divinity within each of uscan be realized by the learned minister and the scholar. For Emerson everyperson can be a kind of poet, realising individual imaginative power.
Society, with its emphasis onmaterial succes, is often seen as a source of corruption.
The tone of transcendentalismwriting is often optimistic and aspiring. It frequently suggests that theindividual, in hormony with the divine universe, can transform the world. TheNew England movement, as represented by Emerson and others, has characterizedby the absence of a forcual system of thought, the exeltation of the spiritualin a general sense over the material, and the immanence of the divine all thecreation, especially as set forth in Emerson’s «Oversoul». Transcendentalistsstate that only practice, experience, the surrounding world form a person. Theythought that a man is by birth inherent in undestending truth and errors, goodand evil and that these ideas transcendental, i.e. they come to a man withoutexperience. But the transcendentalists condemned the moral and the practice ofbourgeois America, its ideals. Transcendentalism became a kind of a protestform of American intellegentia against aethetically pushing sides of capitalistprogress in the USA.
Transcendentalists thought that thesociety would develop homoniously, if evry person did his best. At the sametime the transcendentalists were anxious about the corruption of the Americansociety, wallowed in mercenary calculations, which ignored spiritualinterestes.
Rejecting Calvinism and the materialismof society, Emerson and Thoreau asserted their beliefs in deism, inindividualism and self-reliance, and in the for national literature. Theseideas, most clearly expressed in Emerson’s «Nature» (1836) or «Self-Reliance»(1841) and in Thoreau’s «Walden» (1854) or «Civil Disobedience» (1848),directly influenced three groups of writers:
The writers of the «AmericanRenaissance», Hawthorne, Poe and Melvill, whose symbolic and imaginative worksare however more pessimistic, dealing with the individual caught between hisown values and those of society, (cf. Edgar Allan Poe’s «Tales»; NathanielHawthrone’s «The Scarlet Letter» (1850) or «The House of the Seven Gables» (1851);Herman Melville’s «Moby Dick» (1851).
Walt Whitman, the prophet and seer,the believer in democracy, in the vitality of man and in the necessaryemergency of an American poetry («Leaves of Grass», 1855).
The Schoolroom or Household Poets,Longfellow, Lowell and Whittier, so called because of the tremendous popularityof their works which were read at home and in school. They often usedhistorical themes, folk materials, and traditional forms such as the ballad(e.g. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s «Evangeline», 1847, or «The Song of Hiawatha»,1855); John Greenleaf Whitter’s «Snow-Bound: A Winter Idyll» (1866); JamesRussell Lowell’s «The Biglow Papers» (1846–1848), and «A Fable for Critics»(1848).Ralph Waldo Emerson(1803–1882)
RalphWaldo Emerson’s life was rather quiet and well ordered, but it was full ofideas. Emerson was born in Boston. He attended Harvard University, studiedtheology. In 1829 he became a Unitarian minster. He made a trip to Europe afterthe trip he settled in the village of Concord, Massachusetts. At Concord hebecame a member of the Transcendental Club. It was at Concord that Emersoncomposed his first book, treatise «Nature» (1836). His address called «TheAmerican Sholar» (1837) has been an inspiration to generations of young Americans.Emerson achieved national fame after his «Essays» in 1841. Then came «Essays:Second Series» (1844), «Representative Men» (1849) and «The Conduct of Live»(1860).
Whenhe was a young man, Emerson began writing what he called his «Savings Bank» theremarkable journals and notebooks that were not published in full until almosta centure after his death. We read in those writings his daily thoughts andobservations. He traveled widely throughout the coutry, delivering lectures ina rich and beautiful voice. His optimism, his believe in the vast possibilitiesof mind and spirit suited the American nation.
Hewanted us to live in harmony with nature. He said that the universal spirit isthe sorce of all unity and growth. Emerson was sure that if we «see truly»… wewill «live truly».
«Nature»is a lyrical expression of the harmony Emerson felt between himself and nature.«Self – Reliance» (a treatise) is also at the core of Emerson’s ideas.
Wheneverthe romantic mind turns to philosophical speculation, it is quick emphasizethat which is innate or intuitiul in preference to that which is rational orintellectual. In America during the first half of the nineteenth century theregrew up a coterie of such thinkers who came to be known as Transcendentalists,although the name was used very loosely and vaguely to define almost any writerof mistical indinations. There was general agreement, however, that a «transcendalist»believed for the most part that man’s ideas, ideals, and beliefs were not to bebased on experience alone, but rather should transcend exp. The whole tendencyof these thinkers was to revolt against the empirical, «take-the-world-as-you-find-it»philosophy of the seventeenth and eighteenth century deists.
Amongthese American transcendentalists Emerson was by far the greatest and mostinfluential. He was born in Boston, the son of a minister, and prepared himselfto follow in his father’s path. He graduated from Harvard in 1821, an averagestudent with, however, some unusual promise in the writing of poetry and inoratory as well as general intellectual aliveness. He proceeded at once todivinity school and in 1829 became pastor of the Second Church in Boston.
Buthis inquisitive mind had already outgrown the limitations of creed and dogma.He found himself unable to administer with conviction the Sacrament of the LastSupper, proposing to omit it from his ministerial service: and when hiscongregation failed to support him on this issue, he resigned from the ministry(1882). After a trip to Europe, in the course of which he met Wordworth,Coleridge, and Carlyle, he returned to settle in the quiet village of Coneord,Massachusetts (1834), where he became known as the great secular preacher ofhis age. His full recognition asa a major American writer had been achieved bythe tince if the American Civil War.
Emersonwrote essays and distinguished verse. The long line of useful essays wasinaugurated by «Nature» (1836), which is an admirable statement, not only ofthe romantic veneration and warship of Nature, expressed it in verse, but alsoof the majority of Emerson’s favourite moral ideas. «The American Scholar»(1837) is in most respects the true Declaration of Independence for Americanthought and American literature;» The Divinity Shcool Address» (1838) caused asensation and alienated Emerson from Harvard for some thirty years. His essaysand lectures were gathered into three collections: one in 1841, another in1844, a third in 1849.
«RepresentativeMen» (1850) consists of a group of biographical essays suggested by his friendCarlyle’s «Heraes and Hero-Worship»; these two works are classic statements ofthe importance to 19th century thought of the lonely but mighty individualgenius, are idea which reaches a logical conclusion in Nietzsche and hisconcept of the Superman.
«EnglishTraits» (1856) recounts his pleasant experiences on a trip to England» TheConflict of Life «(1860) is in reality a fourth book of essays. His poems werecollected in 1847. No consederation of Emerson’s work, moreover, canomit theJournals, not published for the first time as a whole until1909–1914.
Emersonis not a systematic philosopher; rather he gives the impression of one thinkingabout in comptete freedom. It is useless to attempt to outlinein brief atypical Emerson essay. His style is aphoristic; his paragraphs are oftenstrings of pithy sayings, and his sentences are more often terse than periodic.His gift of utterance is always arresting, however and his felicity of phraseis often memorable. Moreover, always there lies a fundamental unity downunderneath all his superticial formlessness. This unity comprehends and isaltrehed to one or more of the following tenets of his thought, most of themobviously Platonic; reality is of spiritual nature: to rely on oneself ratherthan on others is of supreme significance: man is born to hope and fight towardsome chosen goal. With such valiant weapons in his arsenal, Emerson fullydeserves the encomium of Matthew Arnold, who called him «the friend and aiderof those who would live in the spirit».
InAmerica during the first half of the XIX century there grew up a coterie ofsuch thinkers who came to be known as Trauceudentalists, although the name wasused very loosely and vaguely to define almost any writer of misticalinclinations. There was general agreement, however that a «transendentalist»believed for the most part that man’s ideas, and were not to be fasel onexperrience alone but rather should transcend experience. The whole tendence ofthese thinkers was to revolt against the emprical «take-the-world-as-you-find-it»philosophy of the 1718 century deists. Among these transcendentalists Emersonwas by for the greatest and most influental. He was born in Boston the son of aUniterian minister and prepared himself to follow in his fathers path. Hegraduated from Harvard in 1821 an avarage student with however some unsual promisewriting of poetry and in the writing as well as in general intellectualaliveness. He proceeded at once to divinity 1829 became of the Second Church inBoston.
Butin his inquisitive mind had already outgrown the limitations of creed anddogma. He found himself unable to a minister with conviction theSacrement of the Last supper proposing to omit it from his ministerial serviceand when his congregation failed to support him on this issue he resignedfrom the ministry (1832).After a trip to Europe in the course of which hemet Wordsworth Coleridge, and Carlyle he returned to settle in the quitevillage of Concord Massachusetts (1834), which was to be his home for theremaining half-century of his life. Here he became known as the great secularpreacher of his age his sermons were delivered chiefly from the lectureplatform where he proved himself an ideal man to fill the part demanded by the Cravingsof XIX century Americans for culture and «uplift» by way of the lyceum andlater the Chantauqua circuits. his full recognition as a major Americanwriter had been achieved by the time of the American Civil War.
Therecognition was based in chief measure upon Emerson s essays, although he wrotesome often distinguished verse. The long line of useful essays was inauguratedby «Nature» (1836), which is an admirable statement, not only of the romanticveneration and warship of Nature expressed in prose where Worsworth expressedit in verse but also of the Emerson s favourite moral ideas. «The AmericanSendar» (1837» is in most respects the true declaration of independence forAmerican thought and literature it is the first notable plea for Americato stand on her own culturally speaking.» The Divinity School Adress» (1838),in which Emerson sought to justify his unorthodox beliefs before graduatingclass of the Harvard divinity school caused a sensation and alienated Emersonfrom Harvard for some thirty years. Subsequently his essays and lectures weregathered into three collections: one in 1841, another in 1844, a third in 1849.»Representative men» (1850) consists of a group of biographical essays suggestedby his friend Carlyle s ‘Heroes and Hero – Worship». These two works areclassic statements of the importance to XIX century thought of the lonely butmighty individual genius an idea which reaches a logical conclusion inNeitzsche and his concept of the Supermen. «Entglish Traits» (1856) recountshis pleasant experiences on trip to England «The conduct of life» (1860) is inreality a fourth book of essays. No consideration of Emerson s work, moreovercan omit the «Journals», not published for the first time as a whole until 1909–1914.
Itis a manifest impertience to attempt to compress a men such intellectualrange as Emerson s work certain ideas keep recurring these are helpfulin making just opinion concerning the man s mind and personality. He is not asystematic philosopher rather he gives the impression of one thinking aloud incomplete freedom. It is useless to attempt to outline in brief a typicalEmerson essay. His style is suprisingly aphoristic his paragraphs are oftenonly strings of pithy sayings and his sentences are more often tersethan pariodic. His gift of utterance is always arresting however, and his felicityof phrase is often memorable. Moreover, always there lies a fundamental unitydown underneath all his superficial farmlessness.This unity comprehendsand is attached to one or more of the following tenets of his thought most ofthem obviously platonic reality is of spiritual nature; to relay on oneselfrather than on others is of supreme importance; God is to be refeved to asspiritual «Over-Soul» which permeates all existences and harmonies all thingsto form the Universe; character is of supreme significance out weighing allmaterial considerations; man is born to hope and fight toward some chosen goal.With such valiant weapons in his arseual Emerson fully deserves the encomiumof Matthew Arnold who called him «the friend and aider of those who would livein the spirit» (1).
ConcordHymn by Ralph Waldo Emerson
Sungat the complition of the Battle monument, July the 4,1837.
Bythe rude (roughly made) brige that arched the flood,
Theirflag to April’s breeze unfurled,
Hereonce the embattled farmers stood
Andfired the shot heard round the world.
Thefoe long since in silence slept;
Alikethe conqueror silent sleeps;
AndTime the ruind bridge has swept
Downthe dark stream which seaward creeps.
Onthis green bank, by this soft stream,
Weset today a votive (dedicated to fulfill a vow) stone;
Thatmemory may their deed redeem,
When,like our sires, our sons are gone.
Philip Freneau (1752–1832)
Philip Freneau wrote a college poemin 1772 entitled «The Rising Glory of America». The future of his country wasalways a subject of interest for poet and citizen Freneau.
During the Revolutionary War Freneaubecame an ardent supporter of the American cause. While on sea duty he wascaptured by the British and placed aboard prison ship, an experience whichinspired a long poem entitled «The British Prison Ship». He wrote a number ofother long poems, but he was at his best in his short lyrics, such as «The WildHoney Suckle». Many of these short works, including «On the Emigration to America»,«The Indian Burying ground», and «To the Memory of the Brave Americans», dealwith American subjects, and it is for these poems that Freneau is bestremembered today.
Freneau can be considered one ofAmerica’s first great nationalist poets.
During the last years of his life he criticizedseverely the anti-demoeratic charaeter of the America bourgeois State and wasopposed to the realtirnany policy of the Federalists. During the Anglo-Americanwar of 1812 he wrote a number of poems against England.
Though his political poetry was his mostimportant contribution to American letters, he is remembered also for hislyrical poems, of which «The Indian Burying Ground» and «The wild Honey-Suckle»deserve mention as examples of sentimentalism to American poetry. PhilipFrenean was a fearless exposer (accuser кораловчи-фош этувчи) of soeialiujusfice, Untiring = (tiveless) (чарчашни билмайдиган – неутомимый) defender of theinterests of his people. He graduated from the Princton University in 1771. Hebecame a poet of the American revolution, its herald (=messenger – глашатай-жарчиси) AtJefferson’s proposal he created «The National Gareble», which became a fightingorgan of the demoeratic party, Philip Frenean contiuned Peine’s works. Philiphated monarchy and clespotism he critized new capitalist relations. Heconsidered verb artist only those poor = (камбагал) writers = (men off pen) as the latterare independent and incovcuptable (неподкупный – сотилмайдиган).
In this poem «Mack Swiggen. Sative» шеър (1775) hecreates sativical image of a (dull, untalented) ungifted poet, dullard =(blockhead) – трища Mack Swiggen. Mac sevved the stroug people of the time and sained gloryand money.
In 1793 he wrote about the tasks of AmericanVerbs and writers. In his article «True Purposes of the Theatre» (1797) Freneancypressed his deep thoughts on the dask of the art.
Frenean was one of the pioneers who fought forindependent American literature. And his poem (шеър) «Literary Import»(1788) is about it.
During the War for Independence Frenean exited inPhiladelphia a magazine «Foural of a Fvee Man» (1781–1783).
In his series of essays «The Peilosopher of theForest» () we can read his allegorical story «The Island of Grabbers» () In NewYork he founded «City Newspaper» () (1788–1790) he planed there many newessays,stories.
In «An old soldier and his Dog» (1790) Freneunshows tragic fate of a soldier who became poor and a cripple (калена).
Frenean exposes the power of money in «APolitical Creed» (Политические размышления) (1797).
In the middle of the 90‑ies he created acurious book «Tomo-Cheki, An Indian from a trible of (крик) = yell(screeun) of Philadelphia». Frenean is seen here as a revolutionaryenlightener.
Frenean is justly considered to be a father ofAmerican poefry. He was the poet of two rewolutions-american and French.
«The house of Night» 1778 (Дом ночи). There wecan read «The Power of Fancy», «To the memory of the Brave Americans», «staurasto an Alien» and other poems.
He wrote many poems about American indiaus In apoem «American Freedom» (1775) (поэма) he believes in the victory of Americansas they are fightiny for their rights and their fight just.
In 1778 he wrote his poem «American isIndependent» where the anthour castigates George III.
His poems about the slaver in America are deepand there the outhor stigmatizes the slave owners of West-India.
Philip Frencan was the second outstanding = sreatson of America after Peine. The son of New York voine morchant of Frenchdescent, Philip Frencan had a stormy life; he was a student, rebel, poet,journalist, trader, sailor, war-prisoner, and a government clerk. At theoutbreak of American bourgeois revolution he wrote several satires against theEnglish. In 1780 he was captured by them and put in a British prison-ship, thehorrors of whichhe described in the poem «The British Prison – Ship» (1781), «Британский тюремный корабль», publishedafter he had been released in Exchange for English prisoners. His politicalpoems earned him the title of the poet of the American Revolution. These werecollected by him into the volume Poems Written between the Years 1768 and 1794.In 1799 he published his «Letters on Various Interesting and Important Subjects».
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow was born in 1807 inPortland (Maine – Мэн) on the coast of the Atlantic ocean in the family of an(lawyer – хукукшунос), who wasproud of their forefathers. The latters came to New England on a famous «Mayflower».The poet’s grandfather general Longfellow was – a her a of the War forIndependence, the poet’s uncle was a noval lieutenaut = [lu: ten nt] = (морской лейтенант) who latersank a slup and died together with the ship’s crew = [ship’s company = команда] in 1804 whodid not want to be taken prisoners. Still a student at Bowdoin college(together with him there studied Nathanicl Hawthorne) (1804–1864). Havinggraduated from the collegehe went to Europe to study languages and During 1826–1829he visited France, Spain Haly and Germany. He began to write poems and prose atthe Bowdoin college. He deseribed his travels in his book of sketches = (очерков) [] преступающий границы, нарушающий (приличия и т.п.) «Outre-Mer APilgrimaje beyond the Sea» (1835) («За морем»)
Returning to the USA he began to heach newlanguages at the Bowdoin college; in 1834 he was invited as a professor toHarward University in Cambridge where he delivered lectures on literature,wrote – historical and literary articles. Compiled text-books for those whostudied French, Spain, Halian, translated poems from these languages.
Hawing been to Europe for the second time inEurope (Germany and Switzerland) in 1835, Longfellow in 1839 publised his novel«Hyperion» («Гиперион») and apoetic collection «Voices of the Night» («Голоса ночи») Two years later he createl «Ballads and OtherPoems».
Returning from his third travel from EuropeLongfellow published «Ballads and other Poems» and «Poems of Slavery» (1842) «Невольничьи песни» which may beconsidered as his answer to the great moral and political conflict of his time.
All his later life was connected with Cambridge.
In the 40‑ies the poet engaged himself withtranslations and in 1845 he created an interesting authology («European Poets»s) «Poets of Europe». When one could find poems of all European peoples, whichwere translated by Congfellow himself and other American poets. In the 70 – ieshe published in the USA (многотомная антология в 31 томах, 20‑й том посвящен России). «Poems ofPlaces» («Поэзия всех стран»).
In 1846 there appeard a collection «The Belfry ofBrages and other Poems» («Башня в Брюгге и другие стихотворения») and amongthem the most favourite poem of the poet was «An arrow and a Song». Soon «Evangeline»(1847) = («Евангелина») the mostsisnificant poem saw world The plot of the poem was prompted by Hawthorne.
Longfellow doesn’t give up prose writing eitherand writes «Kavanagh» (1849). («Кавана»). Poems of different years are coloctedin the collection «The Seaside and Fireside» (1849) («У моря и очага»). In 1851 «TheGolden Legud» («Золотая легенда») is written.His famous poem «The Song of Hiawatha» appeared in 1855 «_________» – «Хайвонот хакида кушик».
Three years later «The Courtship of UilesStaudish» (1858). («Сватовство Майлза Стендинса») appeared.Here poets forebathers are gloriotied. This same year saw the publicationanothelyric collection «Birds of Passage» («Перелетные птицы»).
In 1863 he published his early written poemsunder the title of «Tales of a Waysideinn» («Рассказы придорожной гостиницы»).
In 1865–1867 he completed his gigantic work-thetranslation of Dante’s «Divine Comedy».
Langfellow wrote sonnebs as well. In 1872 hepublished «Three Song Books» together with the tragedy «Iuda Makkaway». In 1872he wrote «Mask of Tiador». 1978 saw «Keramos and other Poems» = Керамос. His lastpoem work was «Ultima Thule» («За пределами» лат.)
Longfellow was a man of action. ProfessorLongfellow worked as a Rcturer. On the literatures of modern Europe. He wasneither o brilliant teacher nor a dull one. Some consider Longfellow to beAmerica’s first professional poet.
In 1843 Longfellow married Frances Appleton, whowas a daughter of one of the wealthiest merchants in Boston, she brought him asa wedding gif the handsome Craidie House and grounds in Cambridge, once theheadquarters of General Wasington. «Псалом жизни».
His poems «A Psalm of Life» and «The Reaper ofthe Flowers», were very popular.
Philip Frenean was the second outstauding greatson of America after Peine. The son of New York. Wine merchant of Frenchdescent, Philip Frenean had a stormy life; he was a sailor, vebel, poet,lournalist, trader, sailor, war-prisoner, and a government clerk. At theoutbreak of American bourgeois revolution he wrote several satires against theEnglish. In 1780 he was captured by them and put in a British prison-ship, thehorrors of which he deseribed in the poem the British Prison-ship (1791),published after he had been released in exchange for English prisoners. Hispolitical poems earned him the title of the poet of the American revolution.These were collected by him into the volume «Poems Written between the Year1768 and 1794». In 1799 he published his «Letters on Varions Interesting andImportant Subjects».
During the last years of his life he criticizedseverely the anti-demoeratic charaeter of the America bourgeois State and wasopposed to the realtirnany policy of the Federalists. During the Anglo-Americanwar of 1812 he wrote a number of poems against England.
Though his political poetry was his mostimportant contribution to American letters, he is remembered also for hislyrical poems, of which «The Indian Burying Ground» and «The wild Honey-Suckle»deserve mention as examples of sentimentalism to American poetry. PhilipFrenean was a fearless exposer (accuser кораловчи-фош этувчи) of soeialiujusfice, Untiring = (tiveless) (чарчашни билмайдиган – неутомимый) defender of theinterests of his people. He graduated from the Princton University in 1771. Hebecame a poet of the American revolution, its herald (=messenger – глашатай-жарчиси) AtJefferson’s proposal he created «The National Gareble», which became a fightingorgan of the demoeratic party, Philip Frenean contiuned Peine’s works. Philiphated monarchy and clespotism he critized new capitalist relations. Heconsidered verb artist only those poor = (камбагал) writers = (men off pen) as the latterare independent and incovcuptable (неподкупный – сотилмайдиган).
In this poem «Mack Swiggen. Sative» шеър (1775) hecreates sativical image of a (dull, untalented) ungifted poet, dullard =(blockhead) – трища Mack Swiggen. Mac sevved the stroug people of the time and sained gloryand money.
In 1793 he wrote about the tasks of AmericanVerbs and writers. In his article «True Purposes of the Theatre» (1797) Freneancypressed his deep thoughts on the dask of the art.
Frenean was one of the pioneers who fought forindependent American literature. And his poem (шеър) «Literary Import»(1788) is about it.
During the War for Independence Frenean exited inPhiladelphia a magazine «Foural of a Fvee Man» (1781–1783).
In his series of essays «The Peilosopher of theForest» () we can read his allegorical story «The Island of Grabbers» () In NewYork he founded «City Newspaper» () (1788–1790) he planed there many newessays,stories.
In «An old soldier and his Dog» (1790) Freneunshows tragic fate of a soldier who became poor and a cripple (калена).
Frenean exposes the power of money in «APolitical Creed» (Политические размышления) (1797).
In the middle of the 90‑ies he created acurious book «Tomo-Cheki, An Indian from a trible of (крик) = yell(screeun) of Philadelphia». Frenean is seen here as a revolutionaryenlightener.
Frenean is justly considered to be a father ofAmerican poefry. He was the poet of two rewolutions-american and French.
«The house of Night» 1778 (Дом ночи). There wecan read «The Power of Fancy», «To the memory of the Brave Americans», «staurasto an Alien» and other poems.
He wrote many poems about American indiaus In apoem «American Freedom» (1775) (поэма) he believes in the victory of Americansas they are fightiny for their rights and their fight just.
In 1778 he wrote his poem «American isIndependent» where the anthour castigates George III.
His poems about the slaver in America are deepand there the outhor stigmatizes the slave owners of West-India.
Philip Frencan was the second outstanding = sreatson of America after Peine. The son of New York voine morchant of Frenchdescent, Philip Frencan had a stormy life; he was a student, rebel, poet,journalist, trader, sailor, war-prisoner, and a government clerk. At theoutbreak of American bourgeois revolution he wrote several satires against theEnglish. In 1780 he was captured by them and put in a British prison-ship, the horrorsof whichhe described in the poem «The British Prison – Ship» (1781), «Британский тюремный корабль», publishedafter he had been released in Exchange for English prisoners. His politicalpoems earned him the title of the poet of the American Revolution. These werecollected by him into the volume Poems Written between the Years 1768 and 1794.In 1799 he published his «Letters on Various Interesting and Important Subjects».
During the last years of his life he cviticterseverely the anti-democratic character of the American bourgeois State and wasopposed to the realtirnary policy of the Federalists. During the Anglo-Americanwar of 1812 he wrote a number of poems against Ebgland.
Though his political poetry was his mostimportant contribution to American Letters, he is remembered also for hisLyrical poems, of which «The Indian Burying Ground» and «The Wild Honey-Suckle»deserve mention as examples of sentimentalism to American poetry.
Philip Frencan was a fearless exposer(accuser кораловчи-фош этувчи) of socialinjusfice, Untiring = (fiveless) (чарчашни билмайдиган – неутомимый) defender of theinterests of his people. He graduated from the Princfon University in 1771. Hebecame as poet of the American revolution, its herald (=messenger – глашатай – жарчиси) AtJefferson’s proposal he created «The National Gareble», which became a fightingorgan of the demoeratic party. Philip Frencan continued Peine’s works. Philiphated monarchy and despotism he criticized new capitalist relations. Heconsidered revls articlist only those poor = (камбагал) writers = (men oof pen)as the latter are independent and incorcuptable (неподкупный-сотилмайдиган).
In his poem «Mak Swiggen Satire» шеър (1775) hecreated sativical image of a (dull, untalented ungitted poet, dullard =(blockhead) – туница Mack Swiggen.Mac severed the strong people of the time and sained glory and money).
In 1793 he wrote about the tasks of Americanpoets and writers. In his article «True Purposes of the Theatre» (1797) Frencanexpressed his deep thoughts on the art.
Frencan was one of the pioneers who fonght forindependent American literature. And his poem (шеър) «Literary Import»(1788) is about it.
During the war for ludependence Frenqau ekited inPliladelplia a magazine «Foural ofa Fvee Mein» (1781–1783).
In hisseries of essays «The Plilosopher of theForest» («Философ из лесной гуши») we can realhis allegorical story. «The Islaud of Grabbers» («Остров хануг»).
In New York he founded «City Newspaper» (Городская газета) (1788–1790)he plaied there many new essays, stories.
In «Om old soldier and his Dog» (1790) Frencanshows tragic fate of a soldier who became poor and a cripple (калена).
Frencan exposes the power of moven in «APolitical Greed» («Политические размышления») (1797).
In the middle of the 90‑ies he created acurious book «Tomo-Cheeki, An Indian from a trible of (крип) = yell,(screem) of Pliladelphia». Frencan is seen here as a revolutionary enlightener.
Frencan is justly considered to be a father ofAmerican poetry. He was the poet of two revolutious – American and French.
«The House of Night» (1778) (Дом ночи). There wecan read «The Power of Fancy», «To the memory of the Brave Americans», «Staurasto an Alien» and other poems.
He wrote many poems about American Indiaus In apoem «American Freedom» (1775) (поэма) he believes in the victory of American,as they are fishtiny for their rights and their fight just.
In 1778 he wrote his poem «America is independent»where the anthor castisates George III.
His poems about the slavery in America are alsodeep and there the author stigmatizes (клеймит) the slaveowners of West-India.
TheWild Honey Suckleby Philip Frenau (1752–1832)
Fairflower, that does so comely grow,
Hidin this silent, dull retreat,
Untouchedthy honied blossom blow,
Unseenthy little branches greet,
Noroving foot shall crush thee here,
Nobush hand provoke a tear.
ByNature’s self in white arrayed,
Shebade thee shun the vulgar eye,
Andplanted here the guardian shade,
Andsend soft waters murmuring by,
Thusquietly thy summers goes,
Thedays declining to repose.
Smithwith those charms, that must decay,
Igrieve to see your future doom,
Theydied-nor were those flowers more gay,
Theflowers that did In Eden bloom;
Unpityingfrosts, and Autumn’s power
Shallleave no vestige of this flower.
Frommorning suns and evening dews
Atfirst thy little being came:
Ifnothing ones, you nothing lose,
Forwhen you die you are the same;
Thespace between, is but an hour,
Thefrail duration of a flower.
Eden:Garden that was the home of the first man and woman,
Adamand Eve, as told in the book of Genesis of the bibleNathanielHawthorne (1804–1864)
NathanielHawthorne is perhaps best – known for his novel – or «romance», as be called it«The Scarlet Letter» (1850). In this work and others including «The House ofthe Seven Gables» (1851) and such stories as «Roger Malvin’s Burial», «YoungGoodman Brown», «The Maypole of Merry Mount», and «The Minister’s Black Veil»,Hawthorne sketches the spiritual history of New England.
Hawthorne’sworks explore moral issues by probing psychological recessesthat only a fewAmerican writers have treated. In their penetrating analysis of states of mind,their laying bare of human motivation, and their canny use of the supernatural,Hawthorne’s stories reward repeated readings. Like Edgar Allan Poe, Hawthorneevinced a strong interest in the working of the human mind and heart, thoughHawthorne exhebited a greater interest in the moral and religious imaginationthan did Poe. Like Herman Melville, a writer who greatly admired his work,Hawthorne portrayed spiritual struggle, particularly the conflict between faithand doubt and the tension between impulse and restraint sketch.
Thoughoften centered around a moral idea or spiritual value, Hawthorne’s storiestypically develop and explore that idea or value by means of an intensescrutiny of the psychological impulses displayed by this characters. Hischaracters are not so much realistic counterparts of actual people asallegorical figures that symbolize on concept or idea. The main character of «YoungGoodman Brown «, for example, bears a universalisins name while his wife,Faith, is clearly allegorical.
Eventhis use of names, however, is more complex than we have suggested. Hathorne athis best created characters who embody moral and spiritual ideas whilecontaining characteristics that make them believable as human agents. In fact, oneof the most interesting aspects of Hawthorne’s fiction is the way he combinesand integrates the real and supernatural, the apparent and the actual, themoral and the psycological. It is the dialectic between these complementarypairs that often reveals the conflict in his stories and complicates andenriches the ideas embodied in them. If the heart of Hawthorne’s fiction isfound at the intersection of the moral and the psycological, the spirit of hisstories blends the fanciful or imaginary with the historical. By casting thesettings of some stories back two centuries, Hawthorne created a distance thatenabled him to explore and evaluate America’s Puritan legacy.
Nathanielwas a child when his father died, leaving his father to a life of self – imposedseclusion which Hawthorne himself followed upon his graduation from BowdoinCollege, choosing to live for twelve years in his mother’s house in Salem.During this time he published privately his first novel,
«Fanshawe»(1828), and numerous tales and sketches in periodicals such as «The Token». Hisearly tales were collected and published together in 1837 as «Twice Told Tales»expanded (in 1842). A later collection, «Mosses from an Old Manse,» which soimpressed Herman Mellville, was published in 1846. Through an emphasis on thethemes of secrecy, guilt, isolation and spiritual pride, the stories andsketches in both volumes conistently reveal Hawthorne’s preoccupation with theeffects of Puritanism on New England. In their moral intensity his storiesdisplay the kind of religious and spiritual obsessivness that characterized thePuritan sensibility. In their sharp focus on a few central characters (such asHester Prynne, Arthur Dimmesdale, and Roger Chillingworth in «The ScarletLetter») they demonstrate an affinity with Greek tragic drama, with which theyshare also a dark catastrophe and an acute psychological insight.
In1842 Hawthorne settled in Coneord, Massachusetts, and married Sophia Peabochy,
whobore him two daughters and a son. He worked as surveyor of the part of Salem (akind of customs inspector) and wrote among other works a campaign biography ofhis college friend, Franklin Pierce. Upon Pierce’s election to the presidencyHawthorne was made American council at Liverpool, England (1853–1857), whichserved as a base for his continental travels, particularly to Italy, where helived for two years. After his sojourn abroad Hawthorne returned to Cancordwhere he continued writing completing his final novel, «The Marble Fawn» (1860),as well as «Our Old Home «(1863), observations on living in England. Followinghis death in 1864, his wife edited his note – books, which were publishedposthumously along with fragments of an aborted romance.
AlthoughHawthorne’s fictions is astonishingly accurate psychologically, his work ismore romantic them realistic. In fact, he claimed that he did not write novelsbut romances, which freed him from the necessity of remaining faithful toliteral reality so he could concentrate on achieving what he considered themore important inner truths of art.
Hisfiction is riddled with symbols, from the forest in «Young Goodman Brown» tothe garden in «Rappaccini’s Daughter» to the scarlet A worn by Hester Prynne in«The Scarlet Letter».
Hawthorne’ssymbols, moreover, are polyvalent they mean different things, some of which theauthor articulates in the voice of an anonymous narrator, but all of which arefinally left up to the reader to understand. Hawthorne in fact frecuentlyprovides two or more ways of interpreting a symbol or understanding an event,as, for example, whether Goodman Brown really went into the forest or dreamedhis experience, or the multiple explanations of Hester Prynne’s letter Part ofour pleasure in rewarding Hawthorne’s storis results from watching him createthe ambiguities that make interpreting his work so rewarding. Part results fromhis playfulness and the evident pleasure of thought he requires for readers totease out the various layers of significance in his fiction. Part also derivesfrom the economy with which he works, suggesting much in little, in the mannerof a poet.
IfEdgar Allan Poe can be considered America’s finest writer of tales of terrorand suspense, if Herman Melville can be considered our finest philosophicalwriter of fiction and Mark Twain our greatest realist and satirist, then thehonor of being America’s greatest psychological and moral writer isHawthorne’s.
Itis Hawthorne more than any other American writer who most fully explores thepowerful moral and psychological influences of Puritanism and who best revealsthe workings of the human heart.
Nathaniel Hawthorne is perhaps best known for hisnovel-or «romance» as be called if – «The Scarlet Letter» (Алвон харф) (1850). Inthis work and others including «The House of the Seven Gables» (1851) (Етти фронтли уй) and manyother stories Hawthorne sketches1 the spiritual history ofNew England.
Hawthorne’s works explore moral issues by probingpsychogical recesses2 that only a few American writers havetreated.
Nathaniel Hawthorne gives us penetrating analysisof mind 1 акл; 2 перем, валон зур акл эгаси, акил, доно, элим, муиафаккир бош. Human mindand heart interest the writer very much. He also exhibited a greater interestin the noral and religious imagination (than did edgar Pol).
Herman Melville greatly admired Hawthornespsychological work. Hawthorne portrayed spiritual straggle, particularly theconflict between faith = вера and doubt and the tension between (arge), порыв; (elec) импульс; to set on – поддаваться порыву impulse andrestraint (ris’treint) (moderation) бошлик сдержанность 6; (restriction) ограничение.
1) sketch n. (drawing) эскиз, набросан; (outline) набросок; (theat TV) скетч = кичик хажвий ______? тури; v t(drawing) набросать; also – (out)обрисовывать в общих чертах.
2) recess [ri’ses] n. (in room) ____?; sec (secret place) тайинлик перем. Бирор нарсанинг энг яширин (_____?) томони; (pol. etc.:holiday) каникулы pl, (US Law:short break) перепыв; (seal) большая перемена.
3) Romance [rэ’m_ns] n. (love affair, novel) роман; (charm) романтика; (Mus.) романс
Фронтон – архит. бино фасадининг учбурчак шаклидаги томчаси булган тепа кисми шунингдек, эшик, деразалар тепасидаги шу шаклда ишланган безак.
Writing in the
Scrutiny n. – тщательное изучение (= рассмотрение);наблюдение, пухта, синчиклаб урганиш (куриб чикиш); кузатиш.
Counterpart (s) – нусхалари – копии; (коллеги – хамкасблар).
Integrate (s) v t интег (gpoups, individuals) объединяться = бирлашмок. mid –nineteenth century, Hawthorne reinvented the history of his Puritan ancestors(his grandfather was a judge at the Salen witch trials). By casting thesettings of some stories back two Centuries, Hawthorne created a distand thatenaled ____ to explone and eraluate Americas Puritan legacy. Наследства, наследие.
Through an emphasis on the themes of secrecy,секретность quilt,isolation, and spiritual pride, the stories and sketches in both volumesconsistentey reveal Hawthorne’s preoccupation with = озабоченность the effectsof Puritanism on New England. In their moral intensity his stories display thekind of religious and spiritual obsessivness = одержимость that characterized thePuritan sensibility. In their sharp focus = центр; фокус on a few central characters (such asHester Pryme, Arthur Dimmesdale, and Roger chilling worth in «The ScarletLetter») they demoustrate an affinity = близость; родство with Greektragic drama, with which they share also a dark catastrophic and an acutephsyshological in sight.
In 1842 Hawthorne settled in Coneord,Massachusetts, and married Sophia ______body, who bore him two daughters and ason. He worked as surveyor = инспектор of the port of Salem (a king of customsinspector) and wrote among other works a campaign biography of his collegefriend, Franklin Pierce. Upon Pierce’s election to the presidency Hawthorne wasmade American consul = ____________ at Liverpool, England (1853–1857), whichserved as a base for his Continental travels, particularly to Italy, where helived for two years. After his sojourn = пребывание abroad Hawthornereturned to Concord where he Continued writing, completing his final novel, «TheMarble Farn» (1860), as well as «Our Old Home» (1863), observatious on livingin England Following his death in 1864, his wife edited his notebooks, whichwere published posthumously along with fragments of an aborted romance [r ‘mns] (love after, novel) Роман, charm романтика; (Mus) романс. Although Hawthorne’s fiction isastonishingly allurate psychologically, his work is more romantic thanrealistic. In fact, he claimed that he did not write novels but romances, whichfreed him from the necessity of remaining faithful to literal realidy so hecould concentrate on achieving what he considered the more important innertruths of art.
His fiction is riddled with symbols, from theforest in «Young Goodman Brown» to the scarlet A worn by Hester Prynne in «TheScarlet Letter».
Хотя художественные произведения Хоторна удиветельноаккуратные психологические, они более романтические чем реалистические.
Эскиз 1) расм ёки суратнинг дастлабки, тахминий, хомакинусхаси, номунаси; 2) бирор нарсани ясашга, куришга асос буладиган сурати ёкилойихаси.
Scrutiny (‘skru:tini) n. тщательное изучение or рассмотрение; under sub: s под чьим‑н.наблюдение.
Couuterpart (‘kjuntepl: t) n (ofperson) коллега (of documentetc.) копия.
Integrate v: t (‘intigrei: t) интегрировать
v:t (groups, individuals) объединяуеься.
Integral (‘intigrol) adj.(feature, element) неотъемлемый (неотъемлем) n (math) интеграл.
Improse v:t (sanetions, vestrictions, disciplineete) налогать, наложить v:t to onsmb. навязываться (навязаться) кому-нибудь.
Seclusion (si’klu:sen) уединения;
in в уединении.
token n (sign, souvenir) знак;(substitution coin) жесток.
adj (strike, payment ete) символический;
by the same (tig) по той же причине;
book gift (Brit) книжный / подорочныйталон
record (brit) талон на пластинку.
expan d (ed) vt (areo, business,influence) расширять
(numbers) увеличивать; (gas, metal, business) расширеться; (population)увеличиваться.
to on (story, ideo ete) подробно разъеснять.
aftnity (efiniti) n to have an with (bond) ощущать близость с;
(resemblance) обноруживать родство с.
insight (into) понимание to gain an into smith вникать в что-нибудь.
surveyor (se’veie) n (of land) топограф (of house) инспектор
sojourn (‘sodse:n) пребивание;
abort (ed) vt (plan, activity) прекрещать;
(comput) преривать; med to a baby делать
valent
multiple (‘m ltipl) adj (injuries) многочисленный;
(interests) разнообразный n (natn) кратное число;
(Brit) also stove филиал сети (магазинов); collision столкновение нескольких автомобилей.
Suspense (ses’pens) n (uncertainty) тревога, ожидания;
(in film etс) подвешенном состоянии напряжении. to keep smb. In держать кого-нибудь в.Walt(Walter) Whitman (1819–1892)
The Americanpoet – democrat and publicist Walt (Walter) Whitman (1819–1892) was the firstwho stood to support – realism in the USA. He was born to the family of afarmer in a village on the long – Island, which is now a part of New York.Later the family moved to Brooklyn – in the suburbs of New York. Having noopportunity to finish high school, Walt still a youth had to earn a living. Heworked as a messenger and then as an apprentice (learner) in a printing –house.
Thegreat poet of America was self – taught. He gained wide knowledge and became awell – educated person. He reached the top of poetry thanks to his self –motivated reading. Whitman fought for the interests of working people in newconditions. In the 40’s he turned to journalism and wrote for the newspapers ofBrooklyn.
In1846 he became an editor of the large democratic newspaper «Brooklyn DailyEagle». He worked there for two years (which coincided with the Mexican War1846–1848).
Whitmanwas against the Mexican – American war (predatory war was a predatory war inAmerican history) and one of his editorials – leading articles ended with thestatement that the war should be put to an end.
Returningto Brooklyn at the close of 1848, Whitman edited the newspaper «A Free Man»where he continued his persistent struggle against slave – owners and theiraccomplices.
Whenhe had to leave his post at the newspaper he became a carpenter. Whitman’s bestfriends were workers, drivers of vans and omnibuses, sailors and fishermen. Abarbarian law about returning runaway slaves enacted in 1850 under the pressureof the slave – owners caused an explosion of indignation from common Americansand these events avoided Whitman’s muse. In his poems. The «Song of theFlabbiness», «Bloody Money», «Killed in the House of Friends». he expresses hisanger against slave – owners and their accomplices.
In1855, as an unemployed journalist he collected a little volume of poems andrhymes called «Leaves of Grass». The roofs of his poetry went into an Americanfolklore. He found support in American humor and wrote in blank – verse.
Whitmanperceived all characteristic qualities of humor and folklore: boundlessexaggeration (overstatement), cosmic seals, social criticism, Davie Croquet’sgood Natured boasting and Paul Bangan’s heroic inspiration (enthusiasm).
Whitmanstates that all people are equal, class and racial prejudices should be sweptaside.
Inthe first chapter of the poem «Song of Myself» Whitman writes:
Icelebrate myself, and sing myself…
The poetical «I»of Walt Whitman is common man, man in general. Whitman’s heart is open toeverybody. The poet expresses his heartfelt feelings and love towards theworking people. He merges (combines) with the people.
Thepoem «Song of Myself» turns into a hymn to a man of labor. But itsphilosophical meaning is wider, that is, a hymn to life on the earth.
In«Leaves of Grass» he raises his voice against slavery – the shame of America.
In«Boston Ballad» Whitman castigates the American bourgeoisie who accepted a lowabout fugitive agvols. In his pamphlet, «The 18th PresidentialElections», (1856) the poet analyses the political systems of the USA and showsthat the dreams of Americans for freedom and democracy have nothing to do withsocial system of America. Whitman criticizes both Republicans and Democrats.
Whitmanunderstands that the Americans people, who won a victory over the slave –owning fourth only to find themselves in a new servitude into the slavery ofmonopolies. About it he spoke in his treatise «Democratic Vistas» (1871). Thisis a manifesto for the defense of realism.
Thepoet condemns the spirit of gain that the crisis, about American democracy ofseared America he speaks about. One of the signs of the decay was the ground,which sometimes takes place during elections.
Whitmanstates that there exists a deep abyss between literature and life. Whitmanbibber Americans criticism of what he was the evils of capitalist America. Theworks of American writers states the poet, have to give strength to a man newforces – energy «they have to show vitalaims – goals».
Whitmandefends the demands of the ideological content of art.
Newliterature, according to Whitman, must show not only the present but also mustgive a man perspectives of the future.
Whitman’spoetry is original and unique. Ancient literature of the East also servedWhitman as one of the sources of inspiration.
 
Emily Dickinson (1830–1886)
Emily Dickinson (1830–1886) was anAmerican lyrical poet, and an obsessively private writer – only seven of her some1800 poems were published during her lifetime. Dickinson withdrew from socialcontact at the age of 23 and devoted herself in secret into writing.
Dickinson was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, toa family well known for educational and political activity. Her father, anorthodox Calvinist, was a lawyer and treasurer of Amherst College, and alsoserved in Congress. She was educated at Amherst Academy (1834–47) and MountHolyoke Female Seminary (1847–48). Around 1850 Dickinson started to writepoems, first in fairly conventional style, but after ten years of practice shebegan to give room for experiments. From c. 1858 she assembled many of herpoems in packets of 'fascicles', which she bound herself with needle andthread.
After the Civil War Dickinson restricted hercontacts outside Amherst to exchange of letters, dressed only in white and sawfew of the visitors who came to meet her. In fact, most of her time she spentin her room. Although she lived a secluded life, her letters reveal knowledgeof the writings of John Keats, John Ruskin, and Sir Thomas Browne. Dickinson'semotional life remains mysterious, despite much speculation about a possibledisappointed love affair. Two candidates have been presented: Reverend CharlesWadsworth, with whom she corresponded, and Samuel Bowles, editor of the SpringfieldRepublican, to whom she addressed many poems.
After Dickinson's death in 1886, her sisterLavinia brought out her poems. She co-edited three volumes from 1891 to 1896.Despite its editorial imperfections, the first volume became popular. In theearly decades of the twentieth century, Martha Dickinson Bianchi, the poet'sniece, transcribed and published more poems, and in 1945 Bolts Of Melody essentiallycompleted the task of bringing Dickinson's poems to the public. The publicationof Thomas H. Johnson's 1955 edition of Emily Dickinson's poems finally gavereaders a complete and accurate text.
Dickinson's works have had considerable influenceon modern poetry. Her frequent use of dashes, sporadic capitalization of nouns,off-rhymes, broken metre, unconventional metaphors have contributed herreputation as one of the most innovative poets of 19th-century Americanliterature. Later feminist critics have challenged the popular conception ofthe poet as a reclusive, eccentric figure, and underlined her intellectual andartistic sophistication.
Emily Dickinson is still considered America’sforemost woman poet. Of her more than 1,700 extend poems, only a handfull werepublished in her lifetime. She never merried and she seldom left her familyhome in Amherst, Massachusetts, but she transcended all physical limitations inher extensive, artistic correspondence and, even more so, in her unflinchinglyhonest, psycologically penetrating and technically adventurous poems.
One hundred nine of her best and best-rememberedworks are reprinted here exactly as they appeared in the first three posthumousanthologies: the 1890 volume (Poems by Emily Dickinson / Edited by two of herfriends / Mabel Loomis Todd and T.W. Higginson, Roberts Brothers, Boston[the 16th edition, 1897, was the specific source]), the 1891 volume(same title as a above, plus Second Series [the 5th edition, 1893,was the specific source]) and the 1896 volume (same title as for 1890, plusThird Series [1st edition was source]). The titles (such as «Escape»and «Compensation») given to some of the poems by the early editors areretained here for completeness, but since they were not original with the poet,they have not been entered in any table of contents or index of titles. Anindex of first lines has been provided, however, at the end of this volume.
Success by Emily Dickinson.
Success is counted sweetest
By those who ne’er succeed
To comprehend a nectar
Requires sorest need.
Not one of all the purple host
Who took the flag today
Can tell the definition
So clear, of victory
As he, defeated dyind,
On whose forbidden ear
The distant strains of triumph
Break, aganized and clear.
HamlinGarland (1860–1940)
Garland wasreared in circumstances that forced him to a firsthand recognition of thedistance between the national image of the western lands as promise andfulfillment on the one hand much grimmer actually on the other. His fatherstubbornly clung to the idea to the idea of the of the fortune yet to be madeon the border farm and faithful to the promissory note of America, emigratedfrom Maine to West Salem, Wisconsin when Garland was born. The fortune nevermaterialized and the family moved to north-eastern Iowa, where Garland livedfor 12years, attending the Cedar Valley Seminary.
Stillseeking the family moved to Ordway, South Dakota; but instead of fortune theGarlands met with toil, dullness and the hostility of the nature. Wanting toteach and to escape his environment, Hamlin sold his Dakota claim at a smallprofit and became one of the «back-trailers from the middle border» in fleeingto Boston. His movement from the west to east was. Significant: although thenational insisted that the land of the «folk» and democratic realization laywestward, and the east was effete, artificial and aristocratic, manynevertheless sought the very kind of life that the American was supposed tospurn. The split in perception, the double goals in Garland are not merelypersonal but typical of many American men of letters.
InBoston he lived alone and struggled to find a new life. He educated himself inthe Boston public library and studied and taught in the Boston School ofOratory, all the while trying to write. He read Spencer, single-tax economics,the issues of realism and impression in fiction. In 1887he returned to theMidwest for a visit and saw with new perspective the treeless prairies theunremittingly brutalizing toil and the frontier’s murderous effect on hisparents. Enraged he returned east and began to contribute stories to B.O.Flower’s influential «Arena». Eneouragedby Joseph Kirckland, Flower and Williamdean Howells, he attempted to create «veritism» in function a realism thatwouldn’t stop short with accepted subjects and attitudes but would also includethe less pretty experiences that had led to his disenchantment. In 1891 hepublished «Main-travelled roads; in the heat of his experience, he had writtenall the stories in this volume between1887and 1889. often «Main – Travelledroads» (1910) was in turn, a collection made up out of «Prairie Folks» (1893)and «Wayside Courtships» (1897) these two consisted of stories written in theshort, fruitfull period.
 

Mark Twain (1835–1910)
«American satirical and critical literature beganwith Mark Twain», said Chernishevsky. Mark Twain, an honest democrat, satirizedthe American press («Running for Governor»), (Моя кардитура вгубернатори). He exposed,in biting satire, race diserimation and he so-called American democracy («Goldsmitn’sFriend Abroad Again»), 2) bribery and corruption in the highest politicalcireles of the United States (The Gilled Age» 1) Chares Warner the novel of waswritten in co-authorstup with 1873, the bourgeois «Culture» of the dollar TheMan who Corrupted Hodleyberry (1898). Mark Twain altacked the imperialistpolicy of the reactionary government with wrath and indignation, and vaised hisvoice in defence of the nactives of the Philippine Islands (I’filipi:n ailandz)=Филлипины), who weresubjected to the iron heel of American imperialism («A Defence of GeneralFunston,» 1902). Imperialist exploitation of colonial peoples is robbery,humiliation and slow, slow murder, said Mark Twain. (Приключения Тома Сайёра). Two of hisearlier works – «The Adventures of Tom Sowyer» (1876) and «The Adventures ofHuckleberry finn» (1888) – are Beloved by children, as well as growp –ups, all over the world. It is because the joys and sovvows of childhood aredepicted with such deep human understanding and sympanty that children andgrown-ups alike have the feeling that it is their present and past that isbenig brought before them. But there is also sharp social criticism in thebooks. We see the narrow – mindedness, dullness and backwardness of pettybourgeois lite in the American small town, and the cruel conditions under whichthe Negro slates lived.
Is there really any evidence that Mark Twain was «greatlyinfluenced» by the 1905 revolution? That sounds bizarre.
Mark Twain was greatly influenced by the RussianRevolotion of 1905; but he did not understand the great historical rote of theworking class. That is wily pessimism may be found in some of his works.
Howerer, in his works is eypressed the protest ofthe masses against capitalism and its evils. Mark Twoins worksbroadlydemocratic, deeply human, openly anti – imperialistic and brillianty satiric – areof the greatest importance today, when the fight of the progressive people forplace and happiness and against imperialism and fascism is becoming more andmore intense.
During 1857–1861 le was a pilot лоцман on aMississippi steamboat, until the Civil war blockaded the river. ThemCobfederate volunteer.
In 1862 Samuel fried to find silver in Nevadathem became a reported for the Territorial Enterprise. Started written fallesunder the pseudonym of Mark Twain.
From 1864 to 1866 the made a trip to Hawaii anddelivered popular lectures in California and Nevada.
In 1867 he rublished the Celebrated Jumpiny Froyof Calaveras County and Other Tales. Two years later he wrote («Простаки за границей») = «TheIunocents Abroad or the New Piligrim’s Progress» In 1872 Mark Twain’s Nevadasketches «Roughing H» («Налегке» – «Огрубевшие») appear and the book is about gold seekers ofNevada.
He made a trip to Europe during 1878–1879. Hisstories «My Watch» («Мои часы») and «Journalismin Tennesses» («Журналистка в Теннессе») are bestones.
«The Prence and the Pauper» (1882) («________»)was published in 1882 and «A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court» cameinto existence in 1889 («Янки из Коннектикута при двора короля Артура»).
«The Tragedy of Pudd’n head Wilson» («Простофиля Вильсон») saw theworld in 1894.
Two years later Mark Twain created «PersonalRecollections of Joan of Arc» («Личные воспоминания ожизни д’Арк»).
In 1892 there appeared «The American Claimaut» («Американский претендент»).
Many people recognize Samuel L. Clemens only byhis pseudonym, Mark Twain, and they know him as primarily a humorist, a funnyman to be read for laughs. Nothing could be more unjust, for Mark Twain is amajor writer in American literature and one of the World’s great satirists.
He was a brilliant spokesman for the Americanfrontiersman, often called the «Lincoln of our literature «. His father was anold-time pioneer from Virginia; the son was born at Florida, Missouri, in 1835.Not long thereafter the family settled in Hannibal, Missoury, on the bank ofthe Mississippi, the famous river which Mark Twain made doubly famous in threeof his most important works. The father died when the son was only twelve, andMark Twain went to work in typical American fashion, as a small-town boy whomust pull his weight on a fatherless family. His older brother, Orion Clemens,was editor of the local newspare, and Samuel became a printer while doing oddliterary jobs for his brother.
Untilabout 1870 – some dozen years after his getting his pilot’s license – MarkTwain belongs to the Far West. He became a silver miner in Nevada; next, anewspaper reporter; next, a special correspondent in the Sandwich Islands;next, a roving correspondent in Europe and the East; next, an instractionaltorch-bearer on the lecture – platform; and finally, he became a scribbler ofbooks, and an immorable fieture among the other rocks of New England. Perhaps M.Twain did not strike gold in Nevada, but he discovered in the Far West his truevocation, which was that of writer extraodinary. His career as «newspaperreporter» came in California, and he was correspondent for the Sacramento «Unoin»in Hawaii. In 1867 he sailed on the «Quaker City» to the Holy Land and toEurope, and it was the fruit of his journey,» The Innocents Abroad» (1869),which first gave him an inernational reputation. Before that he had written somesketches and started his career as professional humorist on the lectureplatform. In 1870 he moved to the home city of his new wife, to Elmira, NewYork, and entered upon the final greatest stage of his career. Later he movedwith his family to Hartford, where he died in 1910.
Hisbest productive years, from» The Innocents Abroad» to «Joan of Arc» (1896),speak for themselves. We may consider him first as a novelist and writer aboutthe Mississippi River, as in «The Adventures of Tom Sawyer» (1876), «Life onthe Mississippi» (1883), and «The Adventuresof Huckleberry Finn» (1884). Thesebooks are remarkable accounts of the society that bordered the Mississippi inthe middle of the 19th century, and they catch almost ideally the life of thesmall-town American boy. For all their surface romanticism, they fundamentallyrealistic and often satirical portraitures. These are the travel – books; inaddition to «The Innocent Abroad», by include «Roughing It» (1872). «A TrampAbroad» (1880), and «Following the Equator» (1897). These are almost alwaysvivid, however, and especially «TheInnocent Abroad», endowed with greatpotentialities of the comic.
WhenMark Twai is deseribius an American milieu in this way, he is superb: but whenhe ventures into Europe and talks similarly about Europeans, He betrays hisprovincialism. In no respect is he more typically a frontiersman than in hisremarkable contempt for the French.
A final group of Mark Twains works is usualcategory of the miscellanous comprising «The Prince and the Rauper» (1882), «AConnecticut Yankee at King Arthur’s Court» (1889) and Joan of Arc» (1896).These have been popular, and deservedly so; they are most characteristic oftheir author, for with their humor and tenderness and sympathy they illustratealso an intolerance of the traditional and the royal.
Hewas at all times a sincere and devote missionary for democracy: he had also thetypical American’s fondness for the underdog in any and all situations. But asthe creator of pictures of a vital era in American History, an era now departed,Mark Twai has the freshness and truth to life necessary to give him a place ofhigh honor in world literature: as a creator of human types and as a reporterof society he has an inevitably kinship with Chaucer and Aristophanes; as abrooder on the shortcomings of man, he is one with Swift, Voltaire, and LaBruyere. And as the greetful portrayer and castigator of American society he isalone.
Mark Twainwhose real name was Samuel Clemens; spend his childhood and youth in the smalltown of Hannibal, Missouri. Life was very hard at the time and had to laveschool and look for work. He learned printing and worked as a printer. At 20 hebecame a skilful pilot on a boat travelling up and down the Mississippi. Then hespent a year with the goldseekers in the West. The many professions that hetried gave him a wide knowledge of life and people. Long years of work as areported and journalist made him acquainted with the corrupt method of theAmerican press and of the American government, which he later attacked somercilessly in his works.
Thereis much fun and humor in most of Mark Twain’s works.
Americansatirical and critical literature began with Mark Twain, said Cherrishevsky.Mark Twain, an honest democrat, satirized the American press («Running forGovernor»), he exposed in biting satire, race discrimination and so – calledAmerican democracy («Goldsmith’s Friend Abroad Again»), Bribery and corruptionin the highest political circles of the United States («The Gilded Age», 1873),the bourgeois «culture» of the dollar «the Man Who Corrupted Hadleyburg»(1898). Mark Twain attracted the imperialist policy of the reactionarygovernment with wrath and indignation, and raised his voice in defense of thenatives of the Philippine Islands, who were subjected to the iron heel ofAmerican imperialism («A defense of general Funstone», 1902).
Imperialistexploitation of colonial peoples is «robbery, humiliation and slow, slow murder»,said Mark Twain.
Twoof his earlier works – «the Adventures of Tom Sowyer» 1876 and «The Adventuresof Huckleberry Finn» 1888 – are Beloved by children, as well as grown – ups,all over the world. Its became the joys and sorrows of childhood are depictedwith such deep human understanding and sympathy that the children and grown –ups a like have the filling that it is their present and past that is beingbrought before them. But there is also sharp social criticism in the books. Wesee the narrow – mindedness, dullness and back – wordiness of petty bourgeoislife in the American small town, and the cruel conditions under which the Negroslaves lived.
MarkTwain was greatly influenced by the Russian Revolution of 1905; but he didn’tunderstand the great historical role of the working class. That is whypessimism may be found in some of his works.
However,in his works is expressed of the masses against capitalism and its evils. MarkTwain’s works – broadly democratic, deeply human, openly anti – imperialisticand brilliantly satiric – are of the greatest importance today, when the fightof the progressive people for peace and happiness and against imperialism andfascism is becoming more and more intense.
«American satirical and critical literature beganwith Mark Twain», said Chernishevsky. Mark Twain, an honest democrat, satirizedthe American press («Running for Governor»), (Моя кардитура вгубернатори). He exposed,in biting satire, race diserimation and he so-called American democracy («Goldsmitn’sFriend Abroad Again»), 2) bribery and corruption in the highest politicalcireles of the United States (The Gilled Age» 1) Chares Warner the novel of waswritten in co-authorstup with 1873, the bourgeois «Culture» of the dollar TheMan who Corrupted Hodleyberry (1898). Mark Twain altacked the imperialist policyof the reactionary government with wrath and indignation, and vaised his voicein defence of the nactives of the Philippine Islands (I’filipi:n ailandz) =Филлипины), who weresubjected to the iron heel of American imperialism («A Defence of General Funston,»1902). Imperialist exploitation of colonial peoples is robbery, humiliation andslow, slow murder, said Mark Twain. (Приключения Тома Сайёра). Two of hisearlier works – «The Adventures of Tom Sowyer» (1876) and «The Adventures ofHuckleberry finn» (1888) – are Beloved by children, as well as growp –ups, all over the world. It is because the joys and sovvows of childhood aredepicted with such deep human understanding and sympanty that children andgrown-ups alike have the feeling that it is their present and past that isbenig brought before them. But there is also sharp social criticism in thebooks. We see the narrow – mindedness, dullness and backwardness of pettybourgeois lite in the American small town, and the cruel conditions under whichthe Negro slates lived.
Is there really any evidence that Mark Twain was «greatlyinfluenced» by the 1905 revolution? That sounds bizarre.
Mark Twain was greatly influenced by the RussianRevolotion of 1905; but he did not understand the great historical rote of theworking class. That is wily pessimism may be found in some of his works.
Howerer, in his works is eypressed the protest ofthe masses against capitalism and its evils. Mark Twoins worksbroadlydemocratic, deeply human, openly anti – imperialistic and brillianty satiric – areof the greatest importance today, when the fight of the progressive people forplace and happiness and against imperialism and fascism is becoming more andmore intense.
During 1857–1861 le was a pilot лоцман on aMississippi steamboat, until the Civil war blockaded the river. ThemCobfederate volunteer.
In 1862 Samuel fried to find silver in Nevadathem became a reported for the Territorial Enterprise. Started written fallesunder the pseudonym of Mark Twain.
From 1864 to 1866 the made a trip to Hawaii anddelivered popular lectures in California and Nevada.
In 1867 he rublished the Celebrated Jumpiny Froyof Calaveras County and Other Tales. Two years later he wrote («Простаки за границей») = «TheIunocents Abroad or the New Piligrim’s Progress» In 1872 Mark Twain’s Nevadasketches «Roughing H» («Налегке» – «Огрубевшие») appear and the book is about gold seekers ofNevada.
He made a trip to Europe during 1878–1879. Hisstories «My Watch» («Мои часы») and «Journalismin Tennesses» («Журналистка в Теннессе») are bestones.
«The Prence and the Pauper» (1882) («________»)was published in 1882 and «A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court» cameinto existence in 1889 («Янки из Коннектикута при двора короля Артура»).
«The Tragedy of Pudd’n head Wilson» («Простофиля Вильсон») saw theworld in 1894.
Two years later Mark Twain created «PersonalRecollections of Joan of Arc» («Личные воспоминания ожизни д’Арк»).
In 1892 there appeared «The American Claimaut» («Американский претендент»).
 
HamlinGarland (1860–1940)
 
Garland wasreared in circumstances that forced him to a firsthand recognition of thedistance between the national image of the western lands as promise andfulfillment on the one hand much grimmer actually on the other. His fatherstubbornly clung to the idea to the idea of the of the fortune yet to be madeon the border farm and faithful to the promissory note of America, emigrated fromMaine to West Salem, Wisconsin when Garland was born. The fortune nevermaterialized and the family moved to north-eastern Iowa, where Garland livedfor 12years, attending the Cedar Valley Seminary.
Stillseeking the family moved to Ordway, South Dakota; but instead of fortune theGarlands met with toil, dullness and the hostility of the nature. Wanting toteach and to escape his environment, Hamlin sold his Dakota claim at a smallprofit and became one of the «back-trailers from the middle border» in fleeingto Boston. His movement from the west to east was. Significant: although thenational insisted that the land of the «folk» and democratic realization laywestward, and the east was effete, artificial and aristocratic, manynevertheless sought the very kind of life that the American was supposed tospurn. The split in perception, the double goals in Garland are not merelypersonal but typical of many American men of letters.
InBoston he lived alone and struggled to find a new life. He educated himself inthe Boston public library and studied and taught in the Boston School ofOratory, all the while trying to write. He read Spencer, single-tax economics,the issues of realism and impression in fiction. In 1887he returned to theMidwest for a visit and saw with new perspective the treeless prairies theunremittingly brutalizing toil and the frontier’s murderous effect on hisparents. Enraged he returned east and began to contribute stories to B.O.Flower’s influential «Arena». Eneouragedby Joseph Kirckland, Flower and Williamdean Howells, he attempted to create «veritism» in function a realism thatwouldn’t stop short with accepted subjects and attitudes but would also includethe less pretty experiences that had led to his disenchantment. In 1891 he published«Main-travelled roads; in the heat of his experience, he had written all thestories in this volume between1887and 1889. often «Main – Travelled roads»(1910) was in turn, a collection made up out of «Prairie Folks» (1893) and «WaysideCourtships» (1897) these two consisted of stories written in the short,fruitfull period.
O.Henry (1867–1910)
 
O.Henry (1862–1910) was a prolific American short-story writer, amaster of surprise endings, who wrote about the life of ordinary people in NewYork City. A twist of plot, which turns on an ironic or coincidentalcircumstance, is typical of O. Henry's stories.
WilliamSydney Porter (O. Henry) was born in Greenboro, North Carolina. His father,Algernon Sidney Porter, was a physician. When William was three, his motherdied, and he was raised by his paternal grandmother and aunt. William was anavid reader, but at the age of fifteen he left school, and then worked in adrug store and on a Texas ranch. He moved to Houston, where he had a number ofjobs, including that of bank clerk. After moving to Austin, Texas, in 1882, hemarried.
In1884 he started a humorous weekly The Rolling Stone. When the weeklyfailed, he joined the Houston Post as a reporter and columnist. In 1897he was convicted of embezzling money, although there has been much debate overhis actual guilt. In 1898 he entered a penitentiary at Columbus, Ohio.
Whilein prison O. Henry started to write short stories to earn money to support hisdaughter Margaret. His first work, «Whistling Dick's Christmas Stocking» (1899),appeared in McClure's Magazine. After doing three years of the fiveyears sentence, Porter emerged from the prison in 1901 and changed his name toO. Henry.
O.Henry moved to New York City in 1902 and from December 1903 to January 1906 hewrote a story a week for the New York World, also publishing in othermagazines. Henry's first collection, Cabbages And Kings appeared in1904. The second, The Four Million, was published two years later andincluded his well-known stories «The Gift of the Magi» and «The Furnished Room».The Trimmed Lamp (1907) included «The Last Leaf». Henry's best knownwork is perhaps the much anthologized «The Ransom of Red Chief», included inthe collection Whirligigs (1910). The Heart Of The West (1907)presented tales of the Texas range. O. Henry published 10 collections and over600 short stories during his lifetime.
O.Henry's last years were shadowed by alcoholism, ill health, and financialproblems. He married Sara Lindsay Coleman in 1907, but the marriage was nothappy, and they separated a year later. O. Henry died of cirrhosis of the liveron June 5, 1910, in New York. Three more collections, Sixes And Sevens(1911), Rolling Stones (1912) and Waifs And Strays (1917),appeared posthumously.
William SidneyPorter known by his pseudonym, O. Henry, was born in North Carolina. After abrief period of schooling he worked in a drugstore, then went to Texas, whereafter truing various professions he became a teller in a bank. When a loss of athousand dollars was discovered, Porter, though he was innocent of the theft,fled to Central America: but on learning that his wife was on her death – bed,he returned home and was imprisoned for 3 years. After his release in 1902, hesettled in New – York, writing short stories for magazines. They were publishedin the collections «The Four Million» 1906, «Heart of the West» 1907, «TheTrimmed lamp» 1907, «The Gentle Grafted» 1908, «The Voice of the City» 1908, «Cabbagesand Kings» 1904.
Inthis short stories O. Henry described amusing incidents of every day life inlarge cities on the ranches, and on the highways of America. For the most parthe deliberately avoided important social themes, entertain his readers withhumorous plots dependent coincidence and characterized by unexpected endings. Afew of his stories touch upon serious themes. Taken as a whole, the work of O.Henry is bourgeois in its spirit. He wrote to console his readers, to cheerthem up by telling them: «well, your life is hard, but then there is apossibility for a woman to marry a man – millionaire, for a man to marry awoman – millionaire, or to find something else».
O.Henry was born in 1867 in the family of a doctor in the town of Greensboroughof the Northern Caroline. William became ill of tuberculosis when he was twentyyears old; in wattempt at curing himself, he went to Texas. Travelling on toTexas he changed tens of professions – he was a cowboy, a druggist, a designer,a cashier, a journalist, an editor. O Henry wrote «Roads of Destiny», «Options»(1909)’ «Strictly Business» (1910), «Whirlgigs». These collections were publishedas very interting in several magazines too. After his deuth his only novel «Cabbagesand Kings» was published. He worked hard & much with literature.
O.Henry’s stories, were published by the newspapers & magazineswillingly, bringing them much frofit but to the writer they brought only fame.The publishers demanded him to write humouristic and funny stories withintriguing ending, standards, which the author stamped for Sunday newspapers.O. Henry dreamed about serious work.
For10 years of his literary life he wrote more than six hundred stories, comicalplays and humouristic poems.
In1904 there appeared O. Henry’s novel «Cabbages and Kings» it was followed bycollections of short stories. «The Four Million» 1906, «The Trimmed Lamp» 1907,«Heart of the West» 1907 and others.
In«Cabbages and Kings» O. Henry created as he says «tragic», a comedy about theinterrelations of the USA and its half – colony – the South America.
Americandealers businessmen cynically interfere into political life of Latin Americancountries – such is the objective conclusion from «Cabbages and Kings».Satirically describing.
TheLast Leaf
Ina little district west of Washington Square the streets have run crazy andbroken themselves into small strips called «places.» These «places» makestrange angles and curves. One Street crosses itself a time or two. An artistonce discovered a valuable possibility in this street. Suppose a collector witha bill for paints, paper and canvas should, in traversing this route, suddenlymeet himself coming back, without a cent having been paid on account!
So,to quaint old Greenwich Village the art people soon came prowling, hunting fornorth windows and eighteenth-century gables and Dutch attics and low rents.Then they imported some pewter mugs and a chafing dish or two from SixthAvenue, and became a «colony».
Atthe top of a squatty, three-story brick Sue and Johnsy had their studio. «Johnsy»was familiar for Joanna. One was from Maine; the other from California. Theyhad met at the table d'hфte of an Eighth Street «Delmonico's» and found their tastes inart, chicory salad and bishop sleeves so congenial that the joint studioresulted.
Thatwas in May. In November a cold, unseen stranger, whom the doctors calledPneumonia, stalked about the colony, touching one here and there with his icyfingers. Over on the east side this ravager strode boldly, smiting his victimsby scores, but his feet trod slowly through the maze of the narrow andmoss-grown «places».
Mr.Pneumonia was not what you would call a chivalric old gentleman. A mite of alittle woman with blood thinned by California zephyrs was hardly fair game forthe red-fisted, short-breathed old duffer. But Johnsy he smote; and she lay,scarcely moving, on her painted iron bedstead, looking through the small Dutchwindow-panes at the blank side of the next brick house.
Onemorning the busy doctor invited Sue into the hallway with a shaggy, grayeyebrow.
«Shehas one chance in – let us say, ten,» he said, as he shook down the mercury inhis clinical thermometer.» And that chance is for her to want to live. This waypeople have of lining-u on the side of the undertaker makes the entirepharmacopoeia look silly. Your little lady has made up her mind that she's notgoing to get well. Has she anything on her mind?»
«She– she wanted to paint the Bay of Naples some day» said Sue.
«Paint?– bosh! Has she anything on her mind worth thinking twice – a man for instance?»
«Aman?» said Sue, with a jew's-harp twang in her voice. «Is a man worth – but,no, doctor; there is nothing of the kind».
«Well,it is the weakness, then,» said the doctor. «I will do all that science, so faras it may filter through my efforts, can accomplish. But whenever my patientbegins to count the carriages in her funeral procession I subtract 50 per centfrom the curative power of medicines. If you will get her to ask one questionabout the new winter styles in cloak sleeves I will promise you a one-in-fivechance for her, instead of one in ten.»
Afterthe doctor had gone Sue went into the workroom and cried a Japanese napkin to apulp. Then she swaggered into Johnsy's room with her drawing board, whistlingragtime.
Johnsylay, scarcely making a ripple under the bedclothes, with her face toward thewindow. Sue stopped whistling, thinking she was asleep.
Shearranged her board and began a pen-and-ink drawing to illustrate a magazinestory. Young artists must pave their way to Art by drawing pictures formagazine stories that young authors write to pave their way to Literature.
AsSue was sketching a pair of elegant horseshow riding trousers and a monocle ofthe figure of the hero, an Idaho cowboy, she heard a low sound, several timesrepeated. She went quickly to the bedside.
Johnsy'seyes were open wide. She was looking out the window and counting – countingbackward.
«Twelve,»she said, and little later «eleven»; and then «ten,» and «nine»; and then «eight»and «seven», almost together.
Suelook solicitously out of the window. What was there to count? There was only abare, dreary yard to be seen, and the blank side of the brick house twenty feetaway. An old, old ivy vine, gnarled and decayed at the roots, climbed half wayup the brick wall. The cold breath of autumn had stricken its leaves from thevine until its skeleton branches clung, almost bare, to the crumbling bricks.
«Whatis it, dear?» asked Sue.
«Six,»said Johnsy, in almost a whisper. «They're falling faster now. Three days agothere were almost a hundred. It made my head ache to count them. But now it'seasy. There goes another one. There are only five left now.»
«Fivewhat, dear? Tell your Sudie.»
«Leaves.On the ivy vine. When the last one falls I must go, too. I've known that forthree days. Didn't the doctor tell you?»
«Oh,I never heard of such nonsense,» complained Sue, with magnificent scorn. «Whathave old ivy leaves to do with your getting well? And you used to love thatvine so, you naughty girl. Don't be a goosey. Why, the doctor told me thismorning that your chances for getting well real soon were – let's see exactlywhat he said – he said the chances were ten to one! Why, that's almost as gooda chance as we have in New York when we ride on the street cars or walk past anew building. Try to take some broth now, and let Sudie go back to her drawing,so she can sell the editor man with it, and buy port wine for her sick child,and pork chops for her greedy self.»
«Youneedn't get any more wine,» said Johnsy, keeping her eyes fixed out the window.«There goes another. No, I don't want any broth. That leaves just four. I wantto see the last one fall before it gets dark. Then I'll go, too.»
«Johnsy,dear,» said Sue, bending over her, «will you promise me to keep your eyesclosed, and not look out the window until I am done working? I must hand thosedrawings in by to-morrow. I need the light, or I would draw the shade down.»
«Couldn'tyou draw in the other room?» asked Johnsy, coldly.
«I'drather be here by you,» said Sue. «Beside, I don't want you to keep looking atthose silly ivy leaves.»
«Tellme as soon as you have finished,» said Johnsy, closing her eyes, and lyingwhite and still as fallen statue, «because I want to see the last one fall. I'mtired of waiting. I'm tired of thinking. I want to turn loose my hold oneverything, and go sailing down, down, just like one of those poor, tiredleaves.»
«Tryto sleep,» said Sue. «I must call Behrman up to be my model for the old hermitminer. I'll not be gone a minute. Don't try to move 'til I come back.»
OldBehrman was a painter who lived on the ground floor beneath them. He was pastsixty and had a Michael Angelo's Moses beard curling down from the head of asatyr along with the body of an imp. Behrman was a failure in art. Forty yearshe had wielded the brush without getting near enough to touch the hem of hisMistress's robe. He had been always about to paint a masterpiece, but had neveryet begun it. For several years he had painted nothing except now and then adaub in the line of commerce or advertising. He earned a little by serving as amodel to those young artists in the colony who could not pay the price of aprofessional. He drank gin to excess, and still talked of his comingmasterpiece. For the rest he was a fierce little old man, who scoffed terriblyat softness in any one, and who regarded himself as especial mastiff-in-waitingto protect the two young artists in the studio above.
Suefound Behrman smelling strongly of juniper berries in his dimly lighted denbelow. In one corner was a blank canvas on an easel that had been waiting therefor twenty-five years to receive the first line of the masterpiece. She toldhim of Johnsy's fancy, and how she feared she would, indeed, light and fragileas a leaf herself, float away, when her slight hold upon the world grew weaker.
OldBehrman, with his red eyes plainly streaming, shouted his contempt and derisionfor such idiotic imaginings.
«Vass!»he cried. «Is dere people in de world mit der foolishness to die because leafsdey drop off from a confounded vine? I haf not heard of such a thing. No, Iwill not bose as a model for your fool hermit-dunderhead. Vy do you allow dotsilly pusiness to come in der brain of her? Ach, dot poor leetle Miss Yohnsy.»
«Sheis very ill and weak,» said Sue, «and the fever has left her mind morbid andfull of strange fancies. Very well, Mr. Behrman, if you do not care to pose forme, you needn't. But I think you are a horrid old – old flibbertigibbet.»
«Youare just like a woman!» yelled Behrman. «Who said I will not bose? Go on. Icome mit you. For half an hour I haf peen trying to say dot I am ready to bose.Gott! dis is not any blace in which one so goot as Miss Yohnsy shall lie sick.Some day I vill baint a masterpiece, and ve shall all go away. Gott! yes.»
Johnsywas sleeping when they went upstairs. Sue pulled the shade down to thewindow-sill, and motioned Behrman into the other room. In there they peered outthe window fearfully at the ivy vine. Then they looked at each other for amoment without speaking. A persistent, cold rain was falling, mingled withsnow. Behrman, in his old blue shirt, took his seat as the hermit miner on anupturned kettle for a rock.
WhenSue awoke from an hour's sleep the next morning she found Johnsy with dull,wide-open eyes staring at the drawn green shade.
«Pullit up; I want to see,» she ordered, in a whisper.
WearilySue obeyed.
But,lo! after the beating rain and fierce gusts of wind that had endured throughthe livelong night, there yet stood out against the brick wall one ivy leaf. Itwas the last one on the vine. Still dark green near its stem, with its serratededges tinted with the yellow of dissolution and decay, it hung bravely from thebranch some twenty feet above the ground.
«Itis the last one,» said Johnsy. «I thought it would surely fall during thenight. I heard the wind. It will fall to-day, and I shall die at the same time.»
«Dear,dear!» said Sue, leaning her worn face down to the pillow, «think of me, if youwon't think of yourself. What would I do?»
ButJohnsy did not answer. The lonesomest thing in all the world is a soul when itis making ready to go on its mysterious, far journey. The fancy seemed topossess her more strongly as one by one the ties that bound her to friendshipand to earth were loosed.
Theday wore away, and even through the twilight they could see the lone ivy leafclinging to its stem against the wall. And then, with the coming of the nightthe north wind was again loosed, while the rain still beat against the windowsand pattered down from the low Dutch eaves.
Whenit was light enough Johnsy, the merciless, commanded that the shade be raised.
Theivy leaf was still there.
Johnsylay for a long time looking at it. And then she called to Sue, who was stirringher chicken broth over the gas stove.
«I'vebeen a bad girl, Sudie,» said Johnsy. «Something has made that last leaf staythere to show me how wicked I was. It is a sin to want to die. You may bring ame a little broth now, and some milk with a little port in it, and – no; bringme a hand-mirror first, and then pack some pillows about me, and I will sit upand watch you cook.»
Andhour later she said:
«Sudie,some day I hope to paint the Bay of Naples.»
Thedoctor came in the afternoon, and Sue had an excuse to go into the hallway ashe left.
«Evenchances,» said the doctor, taking Sue's thin, shaking hand in his. «With goodnursing you'll win.» And now I must see another case I have downstairs.Behrman, his name is – some kind of an artist, I believe. Pneumonia, too. He isan old, weak man, and the attack is acute. There is no hope for him; but hegoes to the hospital to-day to be made more comfortable.»
Thenext day the doctor said to Sue: «She's out of danger. You won. Nutrition andcare now – that's all.»
Andthat afternoon Sue came to the bed where Johnsy lay, contentedly knitting avery blue and very useless woollen shoulder scarf, and put one arm around her,pillows and all.
«Ihave something to tell you, white mouse,» she said. «Mr. Behrman died ofpneumonia to-day in the hospital. He was ill only two days. The janitor foundhim the morning of the first day in his room downstairs helpless with pain. Hisshoes and clothing were wet through and icy cold. They couldn't imagine wherehe had been on such a dreadful night. And then they found a lantern, stilllighted, and a ladder that had been dragged from its place, and some scatteredbrushes, and a palette with green and yellow colors mixed on it, and – look outthe window, dear, at the last ivy leaf on the wall. Didn't you wonder why itnever fluttered or moved when the wind blew? Ah, darling, it's Behrman'smasterpiece – he painted it there the night that the last leaf fell».StephenCrane (1871–1900)
Stephen Craneshowed his extraordinary gift for writing very early. He stuieded the SyracuseUniversity only one semester. During the semester he hed already began to worcon his first novel, «Maggie: A Girl of the Striets». He announced: announced: «Yourlittle brother knows that he is going on steadily to make his simple littleplace and he can’t be stopped, he can’t even be retarded. He is coming».
Crane was thelast of 14 children born to a Methodist minister, Jonathon Townley Crane.
In 1894 hewrote «The Red Badge of Courage: An Episode of the American Civil War and itwould proveto be yis first finest literary achievement.
1879 theCranes family settled in Port Jervis, New – York, In 1898 he covered theGreco-Turkish war and the Spanish-American war.
Crane’s «WilomvilleStories» (1900) In 1897 he wrote his short storey: «The Blue Hotel» whoch waspublished in 1898. «The Open Boat» is based on his experiences of beingshirwprecked while travelling to Cuba. «The Red Badge of Courage» was Americafirst great war novel. In 1882, two years after the father, death Stephen wasacting as a reporter of vacation news items for his brother Townley’s news –service agency in the resort town of Asbury Park, New – Jersey. Crane’sUniversity days (1890–1891) were limited to two semesters – one of LafayetteCollege. And one at Syracuse University. But something of importance was goingforward during this uninspired academic year: he wrote at least the first draftof «Maggie: a girl of the Streets» – an America’s first wholly deterministicnovel. Unable to find a publisher for his account of a tenement girls descentto prostitution and suicide. Crane borrowed money and in 1893 brought it outhimself in yellow pepper wrappers under the pseudonym of «Johnson Smith».Financially the book was stillborn, but it did serve to bring the young writerto the attention of Garland and William Dean Howells.
It is not alittle ironic that Crane subscribed to the notion that an artist had actuallyto touch a segment of life before he could recreate it imaginatively, for «TheRed Badge of Courage», American’s first great war novel, was written beforeCranehad «smelled even the power of a shame battle». Books, pictures andveterans accounts of Civil War fighting, rather than any fighting itself, werethe sources for his psychological study of a boy soldier’s struggle with theenormous horrors, both with in and without, which war unleashes. As a reporterin New – York he had explored the bars and brothels and flophouses of the Bowerry.After the success of «The Red Bade of Courage», he covered the activities ofthe filibusters who were gunrunning from Florida to Cuba against Spain: in thecourse of this activity he suffered the shipwreck «The Open Boat». In 1897 hecovered the Greco – Turkish War for two newspapers: the following year it wasSpanish – American War. He died of tuberculosis in June of the following year.Although he didn’t reach his 29th birthday. His early stories warepublished in a collectioned «Last Words» (1901). Stepen Crane wrote articles «TheKing’s Favour» (1891) and «A Foreign Policy in Three Glimpses». He publishedhis book «The Monster». «Whilomville Stories» is a collection of stories aboutthe children of a little American town. His books fills 12 volumes.
In addition tothe titles mentioned above Crain’s works include «The Little Regiment» (1896), «George’sMother» (1896), «The third Violet» (1897), «The Open Boat and other tales ofAdventure» (1898), «Active Service» (1899), «The Wounds in the Rain» (1900), «GreatBattles of the World» (1901), «Last Words» (1902), «The O’Ruddy, with RobertBarr» (1903).
Crane alsowrote some poetry collected in two volumes – «The Black Riders» (1895) and «WarIs Kind» (1899). These short, bitter poems reveal a man whose life had beenfilled with pain and hardship but who refused to shut his eyes to the grimtruths he saw.FrankNorris (1870–1902)
Hebegan to write his novel «Vandover and the Brute» early but it was publishedlater in Norris’s life was short but full. The son of a successful businessmanand actress, Norris was born in 1870 in Chicago. When he was 14 his familymoved to Oakland. California from Chicago. 3 years later he was in Paris as anart student 1887–1889 devoting himself, however, more to literature thanpainting. In 1890 at his father’s insistence, he returned home to become astudent at the Berkley University of California, which he attended for 4 yearswithout earning his degree. In 1894 he enrolled at Harvard as a special studentin English. He completed «Miss. Teague» (1899), a relentless novel in thenaturalistic manner of Zola. «Vandouver and the Brute» another daring piece ofnaturalism, was written about the same time, but it was not published until1914, and then from an uncorrected draft of the novel. In 1903 his circle ofarticles was collected in «The Responsibilities of the Novelist».
Universitydays behind him, Norris, took himself off to South Africa during the Boer warto write a serious of sketches; he was captured by the Boers, suffered anattack of fever, and was ordered to leave the country. Back home, he joined thestaff of a San – Francisco magazine, then «Wave», to which he made frequentcontributions. 1898, «Mc – Clures Magazine» sent him to Cuba to cover theSpanish – American War. The last few years of his life were spent in writingand, for a brief time, editorial reading for Doubleday, Page, the publishingcompany. In this latter activity, his work wasn’t without significance: Norrisgot the company to publish Driser’s «Sister Carrie». He died of post –operative complications resulting from an appendectomy.
AlthoughNorris wasn’t himself a great novelist, he had a grandiose concept of the roleof the novelistic society. Of the three great «molders of public opinion andpublic morals» – the press, the pulpit, and the novel – Norris felt the last tobe potentially the most powerful. In 1899 he wrote to a friend «the bigAmerican novel is going to come out of the West». This is the origin if hisprojected «Epic of the Wheat», a trilogy which was to tell the story of theproduction, distribution, and consumption of American wheat. «The Octopus»(1901) portrays the struggle of the California wheat growers against morepowerful interests: «The Pit» is about the old Chicago Board of Trade: «TheWolf» was to have dealt with the relation of American wheat to starvingcountries with old there faults, «The Octopus» and «The Pit» loan as large inthe history of the American economic novel as does «Mc Teague» in the historyof American literary naturalism. His story «A Deal in Wheat» is written after «ThePit» is about the defeat of the common people.
Norriswrote the following works as well: «Moren of the Lady Latty» (1898), «Blix»(1899), «A Man’s Woman» (1900), «The Responsibilities of the novelist» (1903), «Adeal in wheat and other stories» (1903), «The Joyous Miracle» 1906, «The ThirdCircle» (1909).


Literature
1. Анастасьев Н.Фолкнер. М., 1976
2. Балгрон Р.Джек Лондон, человек писатель, бунтарь. М., 1981
3. Беляеев А.А.Социальный американский роман 80 – годов и буржуазная критика. М. 1969.
4. Боброва М.Н.Марк Твен. М. 1962.
5. Богославский В.Н.Джек Лондон. М., 1964
6. Богославский В.Н.Эптон Синклер. М., 1976
7. БруксВан Вик. Писатель и американская жизнь. М., 1967–1971.
8. Быков В.М.Джек Лондон М., 1964.
9. Венедиктова Т.Д.Поэзия Уолта Уитмена. М., 1982.
10. Гиленсон Б.А.Социалистическая традиция и литературе США. М., 1975
11. Гиленсон Б.А.Американская литература 30‑х годов XX века М., 1974
12. Гладков Т.К.Джон Рид. М., 1966
13. Грибанов Б.Т.Хемингуй. М., 1971.
14. Засурский Я.Н.Теодор Драйзер. М., 1977
15. Зверев А.М.Модернизм в литературе США. Формирование, эволюция, кризис. М., 1979
16. Зверев А.М.Американсикй роман 1920–30‑х гг. М., 1982
17. Злобин Г.П.Современная драмматургия США. М., 1968.
18. Кашкин И.А.Для читателя-современника. Статья и исследования. М., 1968.
19. Кашкин И.А.Эрнест Хемингуэй. М., 1966.
20. Киреева И.В.Литературное творчество Джона Рида. Горький, 1974.
21. Ковелев Ю.Герман Мелвилл и американский романтизм. Л., 1972.
22. Левидова И.М.О. Генрии его новелла. М., 1973.
23. ЛитератураСША XX века. Опыт типологического исследования. М., 1978.
24. Мендельсон М.О.Жизнь и творчество Уитмена. М., 1969
25. Мендельсон М.О.Роман США сегодня. М., 1977.
26. МулярчикА С. Послевоенные американские романисты. М., 1980
27. Николюкин А.НЛитературные связи России и США. М., 1981.
28. Оленова О.Современная американская новелла. Киев, 1973
29. Основныетенденции развития современной литературы США. М., 1973.
30. Паррингтон В.Л.Основные течения американской мысли. Т. 1–3. М., 1962–1963.
31. Проблемылитературы США XX века Сборник статей. М., 1970.
32. Проблемыновейшей литературы США. Киев, 1981.
33. Ромм А.С.Марк Твен. Л; 1977.
34. Ронгонен Л.И.Генри Лонгофелло и его поэма «Песнь о Гайавате». М., 1982.
35. Савуренок А.К.Романы У. Фолкнера 1920–1930‑х годов. Л., 1979.
36. Старцев А.И.От Уитмена до Хемингуэя. М., 1972.
37. Старцев А.И.Марк Твен и Америка. М., 1963.
38. ФинкельштейнИ Л. Хемингуэй-романист. Горький, 1974.
39. Фонер Ф.Марк Твен – социальный критик. М., 1961
40. Шейнкор В.Н.Романы Дж.Ф. Купера о Кожаном чулке и некоторые вопросы американскогоромантизма. Мурманск, 1968.
41. Яценко В.И. Эрскин Колдуэлл. Очерктворчества. Восточносибирское книжное издательство, 1967.