Theministry of Higher and Secondary Special Education of the republic ofUzbekistan
«Thecomparative typology of English, Russian and Uzbek languages»
Gulistan2007
Introduction
A silence would be a lonely world. To listen, to answer, to shareour thought and ideas through speech and hearing this is one of the mostexciting ports of being human.
It is no doubt true that students grow toward maturity andindependence of thought as they progress through the grades; but this growth isnot as a rule a sharp and sudden one, nor does the psychology of the studentsundergo any great change during the various levels of the fundamentalprinciples that underlie the work of the University remain the same from yearto year. The need in every level is to bring about academic growth by providingnear and broader experiences.
While working at school found out how difficult for the studentsof the secondary school, definite the national groups, to learn English,because there are no prepositions in Uzbek, but in English we have. If we talkabout gender we have, of course some similarities. And when, I tried them toexplain some examples in comparison they learned those words better than Ithought.
Thus, the goal of the research is to investigate grammar of theEnglish language in comparison with the Uzbek, to investigate phonetics, incomparison English with Uzbek.
The enabling objectives are as follows:
To review literature of comparative languages (English and Uzbek)in order to make theoretically we-motivated discussions on the choice ofcomparison.
To analyze the parts of speech of the English language and the Uzbeklanguage.
The novelty is that this work contains the comparative analyses ofthe English grammar, phonetics and construction of the sentence. The studentmade her own investigation finding many examples of comparison not only in English,and in Uzbek.
Materials and literature which she used were «The comparativetypology of English and Turkic languages», the lectures on «Comparativetypology» and «Theory of phonetics» by A. Abduazizov.
The qualification work consists of several parts where she openedand analyzed the theme.
1. Main part
1.1 Comparative typology of English and Uzbek
The word typology consists of two Greek morphemes: a) typos meanstype and b) logos means science or word. Typology is a branch of science whichis typical to all sciences without any exception. In this respect theirtypological method is not limited with the sphere of one science. It has auniversal rise. So typology may be divided into:
1. Non-linguistic and
2. Linguistic typology
Non-linguistic typology is the subject matter of the sciencesexcept linguistics.
Linguistic typology is a new branch of general linguistic whichstudies the systems of languages comparatively, also finds common laws oflanguages and establishes differences and similarities between them.
Typological classification of languages.
In linguistics we may come across many terms as to theterminological nature of linguistic typology.
The are: 1. Comparative methods, 2. Comparative – historicalmethod, 3. Comparative (or contrastive) linguistics, 4. Comparative typology,5. Comparative grammar, 6. Connotation grammar, 7. Descriptive – comparativelinguistics and on the terms used in Russian and Uzbek are not exact either.They are: сравнительная грамматика, сопоставительная грамматика, сравнительно-историческое языкознание, контрастивная лингвистика, сравнительная типология in Russian and қиёсийтипология, қиёсий тарихий тилшунослик, қиёсий грамматика, қиёсийтилшунослик and so on in Uzbek.
Classification of linguistic typology.
According to the notion of comparison of linguistics phenomenonand the aim directed on we may classify linguistic typology into the followingparts a) genetic of genealogical typology, b) structural typology, c) arealtypology and d) comparative typology.
Genealogical typology is a branch of linguistic typology whichstudies the similarities and the relationship between the related languages. Itis applicated to the systems of genetically related languages. Genealogicaltypology developed from the comparative – historical linguistics dominatedduring the 19th century in Europe. It’s origin was stimulated by thediscovery of Sanskrit, the ancient classical language of India. The discoveryof Sanskrit disclosed the possibility of a comparative study of languages. Theconcept of relative languages was confirmed by the existence in India of asister of the familiar languages of Europe e.g. Sanskrit «mata» means «mother»,in the accuse case «matarum»
Dvau-two
Trayah – three
As ti-he is etc.
Before the discovery of Sanskrit European linguistics possessedvery vague similarities for the current grammars built on the Greek model. Theydidn’t set clearly the features of each languages. It is worth to mention thatat the same time Sanskrit discovery gave rise to confuse notions of linguisticrelation which lived for a brief time that European languages were derived fromSanskrit. But this opinion gave way to a correct explanation, namely Sanskrit,Latin, Greek, and other were later forms of one prehistorically language.
Comparatives gave two kinds of classification of languages –genealogical and morphological.
Genealogical classification deals with the family relationship oflanguages which descend from one common ancestor. It distributes languages intodifferent families.
Morphological classification deals with the classification oflanguages according to their structural features instead of a genealogicalorigin.
According to the morphological classification the languages aredivided into:
Isolating (Chinese;Vietnamese; Japan; etc.)
Analytic (Russian;English; German; etc.)
Agglutinative (Turkishlanguages) and other.
Genetic Typology compares the systems of languages in two ways:diachronically and synchronically. But in the second case genetic relationshipis not taken into consideration.
Structural linguistic typology can be understood as asystematization of linguistic phenomenon from different languages according totheir specific structural features.
Structural typology research makes it possible to establish sometraits are universal, unique, and special.
Language Universals.
The notion of language universals is closely connected with theprocess of unification of linguistic facts with a process of establishingcommon features between the systems of different languages.
With the process of generalization of linguistic phenomenon theinvestigations or language universals began at the end of 1950s. The main eventin this field is the international conference held in April, 1961 in New-York.
At this conference a report called «Memorandum» concerning thelanguage universals was presented by the American linguists J. Greenburg, Ch.Ostgood and J. Genkings. In the former Soviet Union B.A. Uspensky published hismonographic research «Структурная типология языка» (1965).
In 1966 there appeared J. Greenberg’s book «Language universalswith special references to feature hierarchies.»
These works were followed by a number of other research workspublished as articles and special volumes.
According to the «Memorandum» languages universals are by theirnature summary statements about characteristics or tendencies shared by allhuman speakers. As such they constitute the most general laws of science oflinguistics.
Language universals study the universal features in the systems ofdifferent languages of the world. They find similarities which are typical ofthe absolute or overwhelming majority of languages.
Types of universals are as follows: 1. Definitional universals, 2.Empirical universals.
Definitional universals are connected with the fact which thespeaker possesses and uses his extrapolation. It means that linguisticphenomenon exists in the system of these languages which the scholar does notknow.
E.g. Indo-European languages have the opposition of the vowels andconsonants. This phenomenon may be considered to be systems of other languagesof the world.
Empirical universals are connected with the mental or imaginaryexperience that is a definite linguistic feature may exist in all languages,secondly he or she does not know if this or that feature exist in alllanguages. E.g. composition may exist in all languages in spite of theirmorphological structure.
Unrestricted universals. According to this type of universalslinguistic supposition of hypotheses is not restricted. E.g. all languages havevowels or for all languages the number of phonemes is not fewer that 10 or morethat 70 or every language has at least 2 vowels.
Universal implication. These universals involve the relationshipbetween two characteristics. If a language has a certain characteristics, ithas also some particular characteristics but not vise-versa i.e. the presenceof the second doesn’t empty the presence of the firs.
E.g. If a language has a category of dual number it has also acategory of plural but not vise-versa. Such implications are numerousparticularly in the phonological aspect of languages.
Comparative typology is a branch of general linguistic typology.It deals with a comparison of languages.
Comparative typology compares the systems of two or more concretelanguages and creates common typological laws. The comparison of the system oftwo languages are compared first of all.
E.g. the category of mood in English is considered to be a smallsystem. Having completed the comparison of languages investigators takes thethird language to compare and so on. Comparative typology is sometimescharacterized by some scholars as characterology which deals with thecomparison of the systems only.
1.2 Comparative – typological analysis of the phonological systemsof English and Uzbek
In the linguistic literature phoneme is defined as the smallestdistinctive unit. Unlike the other bigger units of language as morpheme andword it doesn’t have its meaning but helps us to distinct the meanings of wordsand morphemes. Comp. boy-toy, better-letter-latter-litter-later; бола-тола-хола-ола, нон-қон-сон-он, ун-ун(товуш)-ўн-ўнг(моқ),бўз(ўзлаштирилмаган) – бўз(материал), бўл-бўл(тақсима) etc. From the acoustic and articulatory points of view thephonemic system of any language may be divided into vowels and consonants.
The systems of vowel phonemes
From the acoustic point of the view vowels are speech sounds ofpure musical tone. Their oscillagraphic melody tracing are characterized byperiodically.
From the point of view of articulation vowels are speech sound inthe production of which there are no noise producing obstructions. Theobstructions by means of which vowels are formed may be of two kinds:
1) The fourth obstructionwithout which neither vowels nor voiced consonants are formed.
2) The third obstructioncharacteristic of both: English and Uzbek vowels.
The channels formed in the mouth cavity for vowel production bymoving a certain part of the tongue and keeping the lips in a certain positioncannot be regarded as obstructions. They change the shape and volume of theresonance chamber, and in this way, help to achieve the timbre (or quality) ofvoice, characteristic of the vowel in question.
In modern English we distinguish 21 vowel phonemes:
10. monophthongs [e, i, u, æ α:, c, c:, ۸,]ə,ə:]
9. Diphthongs [ei, ai, au, æ i, əi,]
In modern Uzbek we find 6 vowel letters and corresponding vowelphonemes [a, o, y, (e, э) i(и)]
The main principles of classifying the vowel phonemes areas-follows: a) according to the part (place of – articulation or horizontalmovement) of the tongue; b) according to the height (vertical movement) of thelong; c) according to the position of lips; d) according to quality (length) ofvowels.
1. according to the part (horizontal movement) of the tongue vowelmay be divided into;
central [ə: ə], front [i:, i, e, æ,] and back [a,u, æ, u, α:, æ:] vowels.
2. according to the height of the tongue into: close (high) [i:],[u:] medial [e, ə: ə, ¬] and open [æ, α:, æ:, æ] vowels
In the languages, in which hot only the quality but also quantityof vowels is of certain phonemic or positional value, one more subdivisionappears.
3. according to vowel length th vowels may be divided into short; [i,ə, u, æ, ¬,] and long [i: ə: u: æ: α:] vowels. (In this caseit belongs only to the English vowels as far as in Uzbek the length of thevowel is of no importance).
4. according to the position of lips vowels may be; rounded (orlabilialized)
[u:, u: ۸, c c,]and unrrounded (non-labialized) [e, ə: ə, æ] vowels.
5. we may also subdivide vowels according to their tensely orlaxity into: lax
[i, c, e, ۸, ə, ə, æ] and tense [i: u: ə:æ: α:] vowels.
Vowel quality, vowel length and the position of the lips aredenoted in the classification by transcription symbols of the phoneme itself.For instance [α:] is a long diphthongized vowel phoneme, pronounced withlips unrounded and [æ:] is a rounded long diphthongized vowel, while [۸] and[e] are an unrounded monophthongs. The first and the second principlesconstitute the basis of any vowel classification. They were firs suggested byH. Sweet (1898).
1.3 Comparative vowel table
The first comparative vowel tables appeared in the 19th-century.Their aim was to prove the common origin of some two modern languages belongingto the same family. In the 1920s of the XX century Prof. D. Jones suggested aclassification based on the principle of the so called «cardinal vowels». Butthese cardinal vowels are abstract notion and have nothing to do with the comparisonof two language from the typological viewpoint.
The aim of our comparison is pedagogical. Every phoneme of the Englishlanguage should be compared with the' Uzbek vowels as comparison of an unknownlanguage phoneme with that of one's mother tongue is of great use. The aim ofour comparison (does not need any universal principle) and is to underline thespecific features of vowel formation in the two languages in question. Thetables of English vowels (accepted in our country) are based on the principlesof acad. L.V. Sherba's vowel classification, later on prof. G.P.Torsueva’s and prof. V.AVasiljev's classification.
1. According to the position of the tongue in the horizontal planeEnglish vowels are divided into 3 groups: close, medial, and open. Each of themis subdivided into: narrow and broad.
2. According to the part of the tongue: front, – front – retracted,mixed, back advanced and back.
In comparing the English and Uzbek vowel systems one moreprinciple should be accepted – central vowels must be divided into: l) centralproper and central retracted.
Comparison shows, that:
1. the Uzbek [a] should be classified as broad open centralretracted vowel
2. the neutral vowel [ə] in English was pronounced by – theEnglish speakers examined as a broad medial, central retracted vowel.
3. the English [۸] was pronounced as an open narrow, central retractedvowel (evidently thanks to the new tendency to make it less back).
As there is ho subdivision of Uzbek vowels according to their
quantity into long and short ones there is no perceptible,
difference in their tensely or laxity. So the Uzbek Vo – .veil
phonemes are differentiated by their qualitative features.
The main philological relevant features of the Uzbek vowelsphonemes are: front–central–back, according to which they may form phonologicalopposition: close-mid-open (сил-сел-сал – кўр–кир, кўл – кел, тор – тер etc.)
It should be kept in mind that there is a difference between thephonetic and phonological classification of phonemes. In the phoneticclassification articulation arid acoustic features ane, taken intoconsideration. Every point of its cliJference is of-pedagogical use.
But philological classification is based on the abstractdifferential features of phonemes. They serve the purpose of theirdifferentiating, and are called philolbgically relevant attributes of phonemes.They may be defined with the help of, philological opposition in some pairs ofwords.
Comparative analysis of the English and Uzbek vowels systems
As has been mentioned above the system of English vowel phonemesconsists of monophtongs, diphthongized vowels and diphthongs. There are 21vowel phonemes in English. They are: [i:,I, e, æ, ά, c, c, u, u, ۸, ə,ə, ei, ou, au, ci, iə, ei, uə,] There are 6 vowel phonemes inUzbek. They are: [i, u, əie, a, o, y, y]
The main point of difference: similarly between the Englishmonophtongs, diphthongizes vowel and Uzbek may be summed up as follows:
1. The English and Uzbek Vowel phonemes are characterized by theoral formation. There are no nasal nasalized vowels in the languages compared.
2. According to the part of the tongue in the formation of vowelphonemes there are no front–retracted, central proper for mixed) vowels inUzbek. Resembles may be found in the pronunciation of the back vowels inEnglish and Uzbek. The Uzbek [y] and the English [o] are back-advanced vowels. TheUzbek [o] and the English [c], also (c) are back retracted vowels. Therefore,it is comparatively easy to teach the Uzbeks pronunciation of back Englishvowels.
3. According to the height of the tongue in English there are vowelsof ail the 6 levels. Uzbek vowels belong to the narrow varieties of the 3levels. In Uzbek there are no vowel phonemes like the English æ, əi,ə, [æ, ə:, ə]
These vowels are difficult for the student to master; especially theneutral vowel. But never the less the neutral [ə] can be compared withUzbek unstressed in the words like. Кетди,келди, китоб etc.
4. According to the position of the lips in the formation ofvowels English vowels are rounded without protractions. Uzbek vowels [a], [ə][a] I are more closely rounded and protruded, where as the English [æ, ά,۸, ə, ə],are. slightly rounded and. [a], [u:] are closely rounded without protrusion.
All the front and central vowels in English and Uzbek are ungrounded.In articulating the English vowels [i:, i, e] and the Uzbek vowels [u, e (ə)],[y], the lips are neutral. In articulating the Uzbek [ə, (e)] thelips may be either neutral or spread. In teaching the Uzbeks to pronounce therounded English vowels care should be taken not to protrude the lips.
5. Besides considerable qualitative difference there is aquantitative difference between vowel phonemes of English and Uzbek.Traditionally all English vowels are divided into slier-and long. Short – [ə,c, æ, ۸, i], long [i:, ά, c: u: ə].
But at present the quantitative features of the English vowel)phonemes have become their main property and quality musty be regarded asadditional. The Uzbek vowel phonemes. may only – be differentiated theirquality. Philologically there. Is quantities difference in the Uzbek vowelphonemes. They typical «middle sounds», neither long nor shorter Some-HinesEnglish vowels, [u:] may sound like the Uzbek [o] «and when they are pronouncedshort. This acoustic resemblance makes it possible to compare the vowels inquestion v
6. The English Vowels are usually neutralized and may besubstituted by [] in unstressed position. The Uzbek vowels may be used either instressed or unstressed position. Thus there is little difference betweenstressed and unstressed vowels in Uzbek. It is better to pronounce the correctpronunciation of the English without trying to find any parallels in the nativetongue.
The Vowels Criteria for Classification
The chapter before has examined the consonant phonemes of English froman articulator perspective. After trying to establish a general borderlinebetween the two major classes of sounds – consonants and vowels respectively – bypostulating some major articulator distinctions between them, an attempt wasmade to analyze English consonants in detail, discussing the distinctions amongthem as well as contrasting them with the corresponding sounds of Romanian.
We will remember then that if consonants are distinguished fromvowels precisely on the basis of an articulator feature that all of themarguably share – a place along the speech tract where the air stream meets amajor obstacle or constriction – it would be very difficult to describe vowelsin the same terms as it will no longer be possible to identify a «place ofarticulation». Articulator criteria can be, indeed, used to classify vowels butthey will be less relevant or, in any case, of a different type than in thecase of consonants.
Acoustic and even auditory features on the other hand will play amuch more important role in accurately describing vowels as vowels are sonoroussounds, displaying the highest levels of resonance of all speech sounds.
Vowels, like consonants, will differ in terms of quality ~ theacoustic features will differ from one vowel to another depending on theposition of the articulators, but in a way which is distinct from what we haveseen in the case of consonants where there is another type of interactionbetween the various speech organs – and in terms of quantity or duration – againin a way distinct from consonants as vowels are all sonorous, continuantsounds.
The quality of a vowel is given by the way in which the tongue – themain articulator, as in the case of consonants – is positioned in the mouth andby the activity of the lips. This position of the tongue modifies the shape ofthe resonating cavities above the larynx and decisively influences the qualityof the resulting sound. The great mobility of the tongue and the absence of anydefinite place of obstruction – as in the case of consonants – accounts for thegreat variety of vowels that can be found in any language and for the fact thatvowels rather than consonants are more intimately linked to the peculiar natureof each and every language. It will be therefore much more difficult for astudent of a foreign language to acquire the correct features of the vowelsystem than those of the consonant system of the respective language.
Three will be then the criteria that can be used to distinguishamong vowels on an Articulator’s basis: imposition of the tongue in the mouth –high or low on the vertical axis and fronted or retracted on the horizontalaxis – and fast position of the lips. Many languages will also recognize afunctional distinction between vowels produced by letting the air out eitherthrough the nasal cavity or through the oral one.
Tongue height. If we consider the position of the tongue in themouth we can identify two extreme situations: one in which the body of thetongue is raised, almost touching the roof of the oral cavity and in this casewe will be dealing with high or close vowels – the name clearly refers to theposition of the tongue high in the mouth or close to the palate – and theopposite position when the body of the tongue is very low in the mouth leavingthe cavity wide open as in the case when the doctor wants to examine ourtonsils and asks us to say «ah». The vowels thus produced will be called openor low vowels since the tongue is lowered in the mouth and the oral cavity isopen. If the tongue is placed in an intermediate position, raised only halfwayagainst the palate, we shall call the vowels mid vowels. A further, morerefined distinction will differentiate between two groups of mid vowels:close-mid/mid close or half-close or high-mid/mid high vowels and open-mid/ midopen or half-open or low-mid/mid low vowels.
If we consider the position of the tongue along the horizontalaxis we can identify three classes of vowels: front vowels – utteredwith the front part of the tongue highest, central vowels – if it is' ratherthe central part of the tongue that is highest, modifying the shape of thearticulator and back vowels – the rear part of the tongue is involved inarticulation.
The position of the lips. As I have mentioned earlier, the position of the lips is anothermajor criterion that is used o distinguish among vowels. When we pronounce avowel, our lips can be rounded, and then the resulting sound will be rounded,or they can be spread and then we shall say that the vowel that we havearticulated is ungrounded. As we are going to see later, roundness maybe more or less relevant, depending on the particular language we are talkingabout. The cavity through which the air is released – oral or nasal establishesan important distinction between oral and nasal vowels. There are nasal ornasalized vowels in all languages, but again this distinction will be moreimportant in languages like, say, '• French, where it has a functional,contrastive, phonemic value, than in English or in Romanian where the featureis just contextual. More will be said about that later. As mentioned above,quantity is an important feature that we have to take into account when wediscuss not only consonantal sounds, but vocalic ones as well. In fact, this isa feature that is much more important for vowels, because when we talk aboutduration in consonants we can contrast, for instance, non-durative sounds ofthe plosive type to continuant sounds of the kind fricatives are or simple togeminate consonants, while in the case of vowels much more refined distinctionscan be established among various sounds. The fact that vowels vary in length issomething we can intuitively become aware of if we contrast the vowel of peel[pi:l] for instance, to that of pill [pyl]. As we are going to see later, however,the contrast between the two vowels is not limited simply to duration and,moreover, vowel length is very much a contextual feature. Thus, what weconsider to be members of one and the same phoneme, the long vowel [i:] willvary considerably in length in words like sea, seed and seat. It is obviouseven for a phonetically less trained ear that the vowel is longer in case itoccurs in syllable-final position and it becomes shorter and shorter dependingon the voiced or the voice lessens of the following consonant. The picturebecomes even more complex if we compare the preceding contexts to seal, seen orseem. On the other hand all the occurrences of [i:] mentioned above will bekept apart from the variants of the short vowel [y] in words like Sid, sit,sill or sin which differ in their turn in length depending on the nature of thefollowing consonant. We shall then say that vowel length is not always areliable distinctive feature when we try to contrast vowels – since it is somuch influenced by the context. Other features will be added to obtain a morerefined and closer to reality representation. The next features we are going toexamine will then be the degree of muscular tension involved in articulationand deposition of the root of the tongue.
Muscular tension can vary considerably when we produce differentvocalic sounds and this is something we can easily become aware of when wecontrast the long vowel [i:] in seat and the short one [y] in sit, the examplesanalyzed above. Long vowels – conventionally marked in the ERA alphabet by acolon – are always associated with a higher degree of muscular tension in thespeech organs involved in then* articulation. We will say that these vowels aretense, since the articulators are so when we utter them. Conversely, when weexamine the way the vowel of sit is produced, the articulator organs are lessstrained, laxer than in the previous case. We will consequently describe thesevowels as being lax. As we shall see later, unlike in Romanian, vowel duration,associated with tenseness, has a phonemic, contrastive value in English. The positionof the tongue root. The more advanced or retracted position of the root ofthe tongue differentiates between vowels having different degrees of openness.The vowels pronounced with the root of the tongue pushed forward of its normalposition will be specified as advanced tongue root (ATK) vowels. Conversely,non-advanced tongue root vowels will be articulated with the root of the tonguein its common, resting position. The first group of vowels will becomparatively tenser and higher than the vowels in the second group. Vowelquantity – duration, length – combines with stability of articulation to makethe distinction between simple or «pure» vowels or monophthongs on the one handand diphthongs on the other. Monophthongs are comparatively shorter vowels thatpreserve the same quality throughout the entire duration of their articulation.A diphthong combines two different vocalic elements joined together in a uniquearticulator effort and consequently being part of the same syllabic unit. Inany diphthong one of the vocalic elements will be stronger than the other, fromwhich or towards which the pronunciation glides. If the weaker element comesfirst and we have a glide towards the dominant vocalic element, the diphthongis a rising one: it is the kind of diphthong we have in Romanian words likeiatac, iubire, iepure, iobag, meandre, boal a etc. This is a type of diphthongthat does not exist in English, a language that only has falling diphthongs,that is diphthongs in which the glide is from the dominant vocalic element tothe weaker one. (e.g. boy, buy in English or boi, bai in Romanian – N.B. theseexamples do not suggest that the diphthongs in the two languages areidentical!). It is often difficult to decide when we deal with a genuinediphthong (that is a sequence of two vowels pronounced together) and when wedeal with a sequence of a vowel and a glide for instance. In other words, shallwe describe the vocalic element in buy as the diphthong ay or shall we ratherinterpret it as the vowel a followed by the glide j? Many linguists opt for thesecond variant and some will go as far as interpreting long vowels like i: inbeat for instance as a succession of. The duration of the glide can constitutethe basis for a differentiation, since glides will arguably take shorter topronounce than the second vocalic element in a falling diphthong. If the vowelis very short, however, it is often difficult do distinguish it from the glide.The scope of this study will not allow us to go into further detail, so for,the sake of simplicity we will adopt the widely embraced approach thatconsiders long vowels monophthongs and vocalic sequences as that of buy genuinediphthongs.
The English diphthongs
Diphthongs have already been described as sequences of two vowelspronounced together, the two vocalic elements being members of the samesyllable. We have shown that it is often difficult to distinguish a genuinediphthong from a sequence of a vowel and a semivowel, that we can oftenpronounce diphthongs and even long vowels as such sequences and it is often theshorter duration of the less prominent vowel in the diphthong that transformsit into a semi vocalic element. There is, for instance, a difference, both inquantity and quality between the second vocalic element in the Englishdiphthong [ay] – that occurs, say, in the word buy, and the semivowel [j] inthe Spanish interjection ayl [aj].
According to the position of the more prominent element in thediphthong we have already divided diphthongs into falling diphthongs – if theprominant element comes first – and rising diphthongs – if the less prominentelement comes first. All English diphthongs belong to the first category, as ithas already been pointed out.
Diphthongs can then be opening diphthongs if the degree ofaperture increases with the glide or closing diphthongs if the less prominentvowel is closer than the first. We can also differentiate between widediphthongs – those in which the glide implies a more radical movement of thespeech organs (e.g. [a 2]) and narrow diphthongs – if the two vocalic elementsoccupy neighboring positions (e.g. [e] on the vowel chart. There are also centring diphthongs – if the glide is from a marginal vowel in the vowel chart – eitherback or front – to a central vowel. (See the three English diphthongs gliding towardsschwa; [c] in dear, [eə] in chair and in moor – to which we should add [],no longer met in present-day standard English). A. The centering diphthongs isa centric &falling, narrow, opening diphthong that starts at about theposition of the short, lax and glides towards schwa. The diphthong isdistributed in all three basic positions: ear, deer, tier. If the first elementof the diphthong does not have the normal prominence and length, it can bereduced to a glide and the diphthong is changed into [j:]. There are severalpossible spellings for the diphthong: eer as in deer, peer or career; ea(r) asin ear, weary, idea, tear (n. «lacrim»), beard, eir as in weird, ier as infierce or pierce, ere as in here or mere. Exceptionally we can have ia as inmedia(l), labia(l), genial, eu as in museum, iu as in delirium-, eo as intheory and theology; e as in hero or in the diphthongized version of [i:]:serious, serial, b. [ec] is a centring falling, narrow, in most cases openingdiphthong. The degree of openness of the first element varies, in some dialectsof English the sound being quite close to [ae]. In the more conservative pronunciations,closer to RP, the articulation of the diphthong starts somewhere in thevicinity of cardinal vowel 2 [e]. Then follows a glide towards a variant of theschwa. There are dialects where the glide to [c] is very short and sometimesthe diphthong is changed into a monophthong, a long, tense vowel [e:]. Thediphthong is distributed in all three basic positions: air, scarce, fare. Itcan be spelt air: air, fair, chair, dairy, fairy; wee: fare, mare, care, care;ear: bear, wear, tear; acr: aerial, aero plane; ere: there; eir: their, heir.In words like prayer, layer, mayor, the spelling is ay followed by either or,or er. The vowel of Mary and derived words such as Maryland or Mary port isnormally diphthongized to [ec]. c. [c] is a centering, falling, narrow, openingdiphthong. If in the case of the two diphthongs analyzed before the glide wasfrom a front vowel towards the centre of the imaginary vowel chart, in the caseof [6 c] the articulation starts with a fairly back, close vowel [5]. [6 c] isdistributed only hi word-medial: jewel or word-final position: sure. The mostcommon spellings of the diphthong are: ure and oor – endure, mature, cure, pure(words where the semivowel [j] is inserted before the diphthong), sure, poor,moor, or ur followed by other vowels than e: curious, duration. In a number ofcases we can have the spelling ou: our, gourd, bourse. The diphthong can alsooccur in words where the suffix er is attached to a base ending in (0) 8]fewer, newer, chewer, doer, pursuer.
d. [] c] is a diphthong that has not survived in present-day RP.It used to render the vowel of words like floor, door, pore, score, snore,coarse, hoarse, oar, course now pronounced []:]. It still does that in variousdialects of English, though the general tendency seems to be to monophthongsuch diphthongs. This has been the fate of [5 c] as well, which in manyvariants of English is pronounced []:] in words like poor, sure etc.
B. The diphthongs to [y]: [jy], [ey]
a. [ay] is a falling, wide, closing diphthong. It is the diphthongthat actually implies the amplest articulator movement of the speech organsthat shift from the position of an open vowel which is fairly central (theposition varies between cardinal vowels 5 and 4) to a front, close, lax vowel(not far from the position of cardinal vowel 1. Historically, the voweloriginates in [i:], that subsequently lowered to [ey], than centered andlowered again to finally become [ay]. The diphthong is distributed in all threebasic positions: isle [aisl]; bite [bayt], cry [kray]. It can be spelt i as inice, dime, loci, or y a in dyke, fly, or ie as in die, lie, pie, or ininflected forms: spies, spied; ye as in dye, ye; ei as in height, either,neither, and, exceptionally uy in buy, guy. Note also the pronunciation ofay(e) [ay], eye [ay] and aisle is y falling, wide, closing diphthong. It startsfrom a back, mid vowel, situated between cardinal vowels 6 an 7 and ends in a front,close, lax vowel, somewhere in the vicinity of cardinal vowel 1. Like thepreceding diphthong, it also involves an ample articulator movement from a backvowel to the front part of the imaginary vowel chart. It is distributed in allthree basic positions: ointment, boil, toy. It can be spelt either oi: oil,toil or oy: oyster, Boyle, is SL falling, narrow, closing diphthong. It startswith a front, mid vowel – between cardinal vowels [e] and [e] – and glides to ahigher vowel value, closing. Often the second element is very short, sometimeseven dropped, the diphthong being reduced to a long vowel monophthong [e:]. InCockney the diphthong starts with a lower and central vowel, being pronounced.The diphthong is distributed in all three basic positions: eight; plate, play.It can be spelt a: ace, lace; ai: aid, maid; ay: aye, clay; ei: eight, reign,ey: they, grey, ea: break, steak. Exceptionally, there are spellings like goal[goal], bass [bess], gauge [geuge], halfpenny [helfpeni]. The diphthong alsooccurs in a small number of French loan words ending in et or 6: ballet,bouquet, chalet, cafe, fiancé, attaché, resume. The diphthongstarts with a central mid vowel and glides to a back close one. It is afalling, narrow, closing diphthong. It is distributed in all three basic positions:old, gold, flow. It has various spellings: o: old, sold, wo; oa: oak, roast,oe: toe, ow: own, known, row; ou: poultry, dough; eau: beau, bureau, and,exceptionally, au: gauche; oo: brooch; ew: sew; oh: oh. b. [a] is a falling,wide, closing diphthong. It starts as an open, fairly front vowel (in thevicinity of cardinal vowel 4) and glides towards. It is distributed in allthree basic positions: ouch, loud, cougar. It can be spelt by ou: oust, doubt,plough, or ow: owl, howl, how and, exceptionally eo in MacLeod.English Diphthongs
The lax and tense vowels we have looked at so far are monophthongs,sometimes called pure vowels. This is because the tongue and lips arerelatively stationary while these vowels are being pronounced – the vowels donot move around in the vowel chart. Diphthongs, on the other hand, movethrough the chart as they are pronounced: they start at one vowel-position, andmove towards another. The word diphthong is from Greek: it means «twovowels», and we write them as two vowels.
Diphthongs are tense vowels; they can be unchecked, and aresubject to clipping like the «pure» tense vowels – they can be long or short.
The centering diphthongs occur only in the nonrhotic accents. In therhotic accents, words such as NEAR SQUARE and CURE are pronounced with a singlevowel (monophthong) followed by r.
/>This is by far the rarest vowel in RP (with afrequency of 0.06% – see Vowel Frequencies) – and is getting rapidly rarer,since words in the CURE set are moving over to THOUGHT, />. Thishappened decades ago in mainstream RP with words such as 'sure' and 'poor', />/>, />/>, and in newerRP and Estuary English all of the old CURE set have gone over to THOUGHT.
Difference between SQUARE and NEAR
You'll hear different pronunciations of these two vowels (forinstance, in some accents the />disappears and theremaining vowel lengthens) but most accents of English keep them clearlydistinguished. On the other hand speakers of English as a foreign languagesometimes confuse these vowels, and Icelanders often do.
The Diphthongs
There are 9 diphthongs in English. [əi, ei, ou, au, iə,uə, ci, eə, əi]
The English diphthongs are stable combination, no syllable divisionis possible in them. They may form phonological opposition either with monophtongs,diphthongized vowels or with each other.
E.g. bed – bid–bade–beard–bowed; letter – latter – later – litter[•33] is not an English phoneme, but a version of the vowel [c ۸]. Thefirst element of the diphthongs, which is called the nucleus, is pronounceddistinctly arid clearly. The second element is glide. There are no diphthongsin Uzbek. According to the phonological approach combination of «vowel -+ – j» andvice versa, such as the Uzbek u-u, u–y, u – o, u-+ a, are considered to bethese sequences of a vowel and consonant [y+c] They are not stable combinationsbut sometimes may be destroyed by the syllable division: cуй-унчи, тий-улиш.
The first element of the diphthongs [əi, ai, au, əi, uə], to a certain degree acoustically resemble theUzbek vowels [əi u, a] and [y]. Therefore it is not difficult to leach theUzbeks to pronounce the nucleus of these diphthongs into [j] which is the mostusual mistake in the pronunciation of the Uzbeks. There are also twocombinations often used which consists of three vowels in English. There are: [əi,auα] them may be regarded as diphthongs and tile third consists of thevowel. Usually they are called trip tongs. But there is no trip tongs in Uzbek.
1.4 Consonants
Consonants are speech sounds in the pronunciation of which noiseis heard. The degrees of noise are different There are consonants’ in theproduction of which only noise is heard, there are consonants in the productionof which noise and voice are heard and there are consonants in the productionof which voice prevails over noise, but the fact is that noise in differentdegrees and forms is always present, Consonants do not give periodic voicewaves.
The consonants should be classified on the following 3
Principles;
1. The manner of production
2. The active organs employed in the production
3. The place of production
The last division is very important, due to it the parricidaldifference in the formation of consonants in English and of consonants in Uzbekmay be clearly shown. The system of English consonants consists of 24consonants. They are: [p, t, k, b, d, g, mf n, 1, n, f, v, s, z, w, j, ð,ə, s, з, ts, w, j] and theproblematic phoneme [ju].
The system of Uzbek consonant phonemes consists of 25 phonemes.They are: [п, т, к, б, д, г, м, н, л,нг, в, р, с, й, ш, з, х, ҳ, ф, р, ж, ч, с, қ, ғ]
Some of the English consonants like [ð, ə] have no counterpartsill Uzbek. There are also seine Uzbek consonants which do not exist in thesystem of the English consonant phonemes. They: are [x, тc,].
Many consonants have their counterparts in the languages compared,but they differ inn their articulation. The difference in the articulation andacoustics» of English arid Uzbek consonants phonemes may be summed up asfollows:
1. The English [f, v] are labio – dental fricatives, whereas theUzbek [4>, B] are bilabial fricatives. They have labio–dental versions indialects. So Uzbek [B] pronounced in the same way as the English [в], especially in the – middleof words. Pg. қовун, совун, шавла,далат, шакат, қувват. Uzbekstudents often substitute [w] for [v]: wine – vine.
2. [t, d, n, s, z] also [1] are alveolar in English. The corresponding consonantsin Uzbek are dentals. The English [t, d, n] require apical articulation, whiletheir Uzbek counter – parts are dorsal (dental). The dorsal articulation does riotexists in English.
3. The English [r] is a post – alveolar fricative, while the Uzbek[p] is a post–alveolar rolled (thrilled) consonant.
4. The English [1] phoneme consists of the main member; the clearalveolar [1], used before the vowels a ad semi – vowel and its positional, alsodialectal, versions dark [1] which besides, being alveolar is also velar. Thelatter is used before'' consonants and in word final position. The Uzbek [A] isdental consonants.
5. The English [h] is pharyngeal. Uzbek has: a) the velarfricative [x], b) the pharyngeal fricative [х]. The replacement of [h] by•[x] is a phonemic mistake. The English [h] is weak and there is loss frictionthan in the production of the Uzbek [x].
6. The English affricates[tS, dз] and fricatives [S, з] are polato–alveolar, whileUzbek [ш, ж] are post–alveolar fricatives and [ж] may be palatalized.
7. The English voiceless [p.h, k, s, S, ts] are more energetic
Than the corresponding Uzbek voiceless consonants. In the Uzbek[n, t, k] there is less aspiration than in the corresponding English voicelessplosives. While the English voiced [b, d, g, z, j;] are less energetic than thecorresponding Uzbek voiced consonants.
8. We regard the jota combination [ju:] as u separate phoneme inEnglish. It is not a chance combination, it is very often used and there is aletter in the alphabet to denote R In spelling. According to its first elementit may be regarded as a consonants phoneme [c+v] may-form phonologicalopposition
9. The English [j] is a palatal semi–vowel. The Uzbek [й] is a palatal fricative» Gоmp, yet= ет [йт]
10. The English [ðə] are interdentally. The interdentally articulation isunknown in Uzbek. They are extremely difficult for me Uzbek to master.
11. The English sonant [m, 1, n] in word – final position are verysonorous and somewhat prolonged before a pause, especially when they arepreceded by a short vowel, whereas the corresponding Uzbek sonant are les&sonorous in Use same position. Comp. Bell, Toni, on; Uzbek: бел, том, он.
12. The English voicedconsonants remain voiced in word final position and before voicelessconsonants, while the Uzbek voiceless consonants become devoiced in the.-sameposition. The Uzbek students of English are apt – to make phonologic mistakes:bed–bet, course-cause.
Word is usually characterized as the smallest naming unitconsisting of a definite number of sounds and denoting a definite lexicalmeaning and expressing definite grammatical categories. It usually is a subject–matterof-morphology, which system the form and structure of the word. Iris well knownthat the neurological system of the language reveals it properties through the!morphemic structure of words. As a part of the grammatical theory morphologyfaces two set) mental units yogh the language: the morpheme and the word.
Morpheme is known as\he smallest meaningful unit of the languageinto which a word may be divided. E.g. in the word writ-err-s the root morphemewrite expresses the lexical meaning of the word, lexical morpheme – er shows thedoer of the action denoted by the root morpheme, and the grammatical suffix-sindicates the number of the doers, more than one person is meant, Similaropinion can be sad regarding the following units of the language, such asFinish – ed, courageous, un-prepared – ness: тугал лан ма ган лик дан дир, бедаволардан.
Being a meaningful segmental component of the word a morpheme isformed by phonemes but unlike word it is elementary, i.e. is indivisible into signallercomponents. There may be zero morphemes, i.e. the absence of morpheme mayindicate a certain lexical or grammatical meaning: Cf: – book-s, hope-hope китоб-китоб-лар, но-умид– In cases of «students come children come, geese come» the morphs –s, en, and [i:] (of goose) are allomorphs of the morpheme of plurality «-лар» In Uzbek.
Like a word a morpheme is two-facet language unit, an associationof a certain sound-pattern. But unlike the word a morpheme is not an autonomousbody (unit) and can occur in speech only as a constituent part of the word. It cannotbe segmented into smaller units without losing constitutive essence.
The morphemes can be divided into root (free0) morphemes andaffixal (bound) morphemes (affixes). A form is said to be free if it may standwithout changing its meaning; if not it is a bound form, as it always doubt tosomething else.
E.g: In the words sportive, elegant morphemes sport, elegant mayoccur alone as utterances, but the forms-ive, – ant, eleg cannot be used alonewithout the root morphemes.
The morphemes may be classified in two ways: a) from the semanticpoint of view, and b) from the structural point of view.
Semantically morphemes fall into two classes: the root morphemesand non-root (affixational) morpheme.
The root morphemes is the lexical nucleus of the word and it theyusually express mainly the lexical meaning i.e. material part of the meaning ofthe word, while the affixes morphemes can express both lexical and grammaticalmeanings, this they can be characterized as lexical affixes (-er) andgrammatical suffixes (-s) in «writ-er-s». The lexical suffixes are usually usedmainly in word building process to form words (e.g. help-less, black-ness,teach-er, speak-er, нажот-сиз, қора-лик,ўқит-ув-чи, сўз-лов-чи) wheregrammatical suffixes serve to express the grammatical meaning of the word bychanging its form (paradigm) (e.g. speaker) John’ – s, (case endingdenoting possession) come a (person, number, tense, aspect, mood, active,voice) 3rd person singular present simple, indicative mood, activevoice. Thus we can say that the grammatical significance of affixes(derivational) morphemes is always combined with their lexical meaning.
e.g. verb-to write‑ёзмоқ
noun – writer – ёзувчи
The derivative morpheme «-er» has a grammatical meaning as itserves to distinguish a-noun from a verb and it has a lexical meaning i.e. thedoer of the action. The root of the notional words is classical lexicalmorphemes.
The affixes (derivational) morphemes include prefixes, suffixesand inflexions (grammatical suffixes). Prefixes and lexical suffixes have wordbuilding functions. Together with the root they form the stem of the word.Prefixes precede the root morpheme (im-personal, un-known, re-write), suffixesfollow it (e.g: friend-ship, active-ize, readi-ness, дўст-лик, фаоллаш-тир-моқ, тайёр-лик).
Inflexions word-forming suffixes express different morphologicalcategories.
Structurally morphemes fall under three types: a) free morphemes,b) bound morphemes, c) send-bound morphemes.
A free morpheme is the stem of the word, a great many freemorphemes are root morphemes. (e.g. London-er, sports-man-ship). A bound morphemesfor they are alwaysmake a part of the word. (e.g. – ness, – ship, – dom, – dis,– pre, un-, чи, паз, – дон, бе-, сер,по,) some root morphemes alsobelong to the class of bound morphemes.
1.5 The problem of Parts of speech
A word is known as the smallest naming unit of the language.According to L. Bloomfield, word is a minimum free form. Close observation andcomparison of words clearly shows that a great number of words have a compositenature and are made up of smaller units, each possessing sound-form andmeaning. In other words, the term word denotes the basic unit of a givenlanguage resulting from the association of a particular meaning with aparticular group of sounds capable of a grammatical employment is a word is thereforesimultaneously a semantic, grammatical and phonological unit.
The words of every language fall into classes which are calledparts of speech. The problem of parts of speech is one of the controversialproblems of modern linguistics. The theoretical side of this problem is thesubject matter of the theoretical grammar. therefore we should base ourcomparison of system of parts of speech on the generally recognized(acknowledged) opinions of grammarians.
In order to make easier to learn the language the grammariansusually divide the word-stock of the language into some subclasses called inlinguists the parts of speech.
The main principles of classifying words into parts of speech are:their meaning, form and function, that is to say the words of any languagediffer from each other in meaning in form and in function. different parts ofspeech have different lexical meanings.
e.g. verbs denote process or state; nouns express the names ofobjects, adjectives their properties…
Some parts of speech have different grammatical categories. Verbshave the category of mood, tense, aspect, voice, person, number etc., noun –case, number, adjective – comparison, etc. The parts of speech also differ fromeach other in their syntactic function; e.g. verbs are used in the sentencestructure as predicates, nouns-as subjects, adjectives-as attributes etc.
All words of the comparing languages may be divided into threemain groups:
1. Notional words
2. Structural words
3. Independent elements
Notional words have distinct lexical meanings and performindependent syntactic functions in the sentence structure, they serve asprimary or secondary parts of the sentence. To this group belong the followingparts of speech: Noun, verb, adjective, pronouns, numerals, statives and adverbs.It should be kept in mind that statives in Uzbek are otter interchanged withadjectives and not treated as an independent part of speech.
Structural words differ from the notional words semantically theirlexical meaning is of a more general character than that of the notional words.Moreover they sometimes altogether avid it that they are independent syntacticfunction in the sentence structure but serve either to express variousrelations between the words in a sentence (e.g. trees in the garden, Tom andJoe, etc.) or to specify the meaning of the words (e.g. there is a book on thetable, the book on the table is mine, etc.)
The following parts of speech are to be treated as structuralwords: articles, particles (only, solely, exclusively mainly) prepositions andconjunctions. Articles and prepositions are individual character of Englishdifferentiating it from Uzbek as the functions of these parts of speech inUzbek are performed by other elements of the language.
Independent elements are words which are characterized by theirpeculiar meanings of various kind. They usually have no grammatical connectionswith the sentence in which they occur, i.e. they do not perform any syntacticfunction in the sentence. e.g. They certainly will come to the party.
Sometimes independent elements can even serve as sentencesthemselves; e.g. Yes, No, Alas.
Independent class of words include modal words, interjections,words of affirmation and negation.
It is noteworthy that the decision of words into parts of speechcan be accepted only with certain reservation there are words which cannot beclassed among any of the above motioned parts of speech such as a please,anyway ҳар қалай.
Typological categories of English and Uzbek words
The words of any language are characterized by their ability toexpress definite notions existing in this society, thus changing their forms.Most of the notions existing in the society have common peculiarities, i.e.they have universal character.
Among the linguistic categories which can be traced in most of thelanguages of the world we can see the categories which display typologicallygeneral character but can be expressed in different languages in differentways. Studying these linguistic facts figuring out their similarities and differencesis much of importance for the man of letters, especially for the graduates ofthe language faculties of universities who are going to become English teachersand interpreters in near future.
For instance, such linguistic notions as case, gender person,tense, voice, possession, etc. are of general character for the comparinglanguages, but they may be expressed by typological different means of thelanguage. In this chapter we try to generalize the main means of expressing thenotions which are of peculiar type of the comparing languages.
1.6 Typological category of case
The system of grammatical forms indicating the syntactic relationsof nouns (or pronouns) is usually treated as the category of case, in otherwords, case is a grammatical form which takes part in the formation of theparadigm of nouns (or pronouns). Grammarians seem to be divided in theiropinions as to the case system of the English nouns. The most common view isthat they have only two case: common (subject) and possessive (genitive) cases.The common case is characterized by a zero morpheme (suffix) e.g. child, boy,student, ir. and the possessive case by the indexing is and its phoneticvariants as [s] and [z].
The Uzbek бошкелишиги (common or subject case)corresponds in meaning and function to the English common case both of them areunmarked member of the case opposition and perform similar syntactic functionin the sentence structure.
English common case and other five cases of Uzbek are markedmembers of the case opposition in both languages. The English possessive caseis marked by the stiffly is which can sometimes be substituted by thepreposition of (e.g. my father’s room, the room of may father) and therefore issometimes called of – genitive – case. This case denotes possession of a thingor a person and in Uzbek it has its correspondence in the Uzbek караткич келишиги which isexpressed by the case ending suffix num.
Dealing with notion of possession one should keep in mind that inUzbek this category may be expressed not only by the nouns but also theirantecedents in the pleonastic phrase such as менинг опамб сизнинг паспортингизю. In this case we have to face the problem of redundancy and oftentry to avoid it using the modified noun only which contains the possessivesuffix. e.g. опам кeлди. In this case the suffix of possession can be rendered in Englishand in Russian by means of special possessive pronouns. e.g. My sister came. Моя сестра пришла.
Meaning and functions of the other Uzbek cases may be denoted inUzbek either by means of prepositions or by word order. For instance themeaning and function of the Uzbek тушумкелиши is expressed in Uzbek bymeans of the case ending – ши which denotes the objectacted upon and it may be expressed in English by means of word order which ischaracterized in this language to be very strict in comparison with Russian orUzbek (e.g. курдим кузингни колдимбалога, кайга борайин энди давога? – Видел я твои очи черные (и заболел) куда мне теперь идти на лечение?) Some Englishgrammarians O. Curme, M. Doutschbein recognize word order in English as dativecase.
Dealing with this case one has to keep in mind the structure ofthe sentence i.e. the word order in the sentences of the comparing languages –sov (in Uzbek e.g. мен укамни курдим) and svo (in English I saw my brother»)
The Uzbek урин пайткелишиги denotes he place of thething or a person in the space and it can be rendered in English by means ofprepositions at, in, an, by, over, above, among, between, behind etc. (e.g.У: китоб жавонда. The book isin the bookcase.) It should be kept in mind that most of the Englishpreposition may contain (more) additional meaning denoting the place of thething or a person. (сu in – мчи-behind‑орқасида, between‑орасида, under‑остида, etc).
The Uzbek жуналишкелишиги denotes the direction of anaction performed by means of the case ending‑га. It can be rendered inEnglish also by means of prepositions to, at, into, etc. e.g. V(йигит) мактаб – га кетди. He went toschool. У қиз менга қаради.She looked at me.
Чиқиш келишиги ofUzbek nouns denotes the beginning point of the action denoted by the verb. Itcan be rendered in English by means of preposition from, out of, from under,etc. e.g.: У(қиз) Лондон-дан келди. She camefrom London.У(йигит) сумкаси-дан қулқопларини олди. He took his gloves out of his bag.
1.7 Typological category of gender
The typological category of gender consists of the notions ofnatural (biological sex and the grammatical (formal) gender. The connection ofthis category with the natural sex is in the animals and birds. It isdisplayed by the nouns and pronouns in English. (But in Russian it can alsoexpressed by the adjectives and the past simple tense forms of the verbs.) Mostof the Uzbek grammar books do not contain any information about the category ofgender of Uzbek nouns, because the authors consider Uzbek nouns not to havethis category at all.
In accordance with their lexical meanings the nouns of thecomparing nouns may be classed asbelonging to the masculine, feminine and neuter genders. Names of male beingsare usually masculine (e.g.: man, husband, boy, son, nephew, bull, ox,ram(whether), cock, stallion – ота, уғил, эркак, ҳукиз, буқа,новвос, қучқор, хуроз, айғир) and names of female beings arefeminine (e.g.: woman, lady, girl, daughter, wife, niece, cow heifer(ғунажин),ewe [ju:] (совлиқ), hen, mare‑ауол, хоним, қиз(бола), қиз(фарзанд), хотин, сигир, ғунажин, соблиқ, макиуон, байтал).Allother nouns are said to be neuter gender (e.g.:pencil, flower, rain, bird, sky-қалам,гул, уомғир, парранда, қуш, осмон).
Gender finds its formal expression in the replacement of nouns bythe personal pronouns in the mind person singular, i.e., she, it.
However there some nouns in English which may be treated as eithermakes or females. e.g: friend, cousin, doctor, neighbor, worker, etc. The samecan be said about the Uzbek terms of kinship e.g.: жиян, қариндош, холавачча, қуда, қушни, табиб, ишчи. They are said to be of common (neuter) gender. When there is noneed to make distinction of sex the masculine pronoun is used for these nouns.
There are three ways of expressing the category of gender in thecomparing languages: morphological, syntactical and lexical. Morphological wayof expressing the category of gender is realized by adding suffixes of genderto the stem of the word. It is a highly developed way of expressing gender inRussian by means of suffixes ending in: a) consonants to be masculine, e.g.: дом, стол, праздник; b) vowelsas – a, – я to be feminine. e.g.: мама, старуха, тетя; c) vowels-o, – e to be neuter. e.g.: ружъуо, море, окно и т.п.
English has the only suffix – ess which is used to denote femininegender.e.g.: host-ess, actr-ess, waitr-ess, princ-ess, lion-ess, and tiger-ess.Feminine gender in Uzbek may often be expressed by means of the suffix- a whichis supposed to be of Arabic origin e.g.: – раис‑а, вазир‑а, шоир‑а, муаллим‑а, котиб‑а etc.
In order denote the gender syntactic way is also possible. In thiscase different kinds of combinations of words are formed in which adjunct word(modifier) usually denotes the sex of the head word. e.g.: man servant – қарол, amid servant‑оксоч, boy friend-ўғилбола уртоқ, girl friend-қиз бола ўртоқ, tom cat‑еркак мушук, tabby cat‑урғочимушук, he-wolf‑еркак бўри, she wolf‑урғочи бўри, he goat‑така, she goat‑она ечки, etc. Asis seen from these examples English gender denoted by a syntactic combination(man servant she goat can be expressed in Uzbek both by syntactically andlexically, (қарол, она ечки).
In most cases gender can be expressed lexically, i.e. by the stemof the noun only. e.g.: father‑ота, uncle‑амаки, niece – (қиз)жиян, sister-in-law‑келин, lord‑жаноб, also names of animals, suchas mare‑бия, tiger – (арка)йўлбарс, ram-қўчқор, etc.Names of people can also denote the gender of the person who owns this name.e.g.: Arthur, Christopher, John – Аҳмаджон, Баҳодир, Шаҳобиддин denoting male being and Mary, Christine, Nelly, – Сайера, Мехринисо,Гулоим, etc.
Nouns denoting various kinds of vessels (ship, boat, yacht,life-raft), the noun `car`, as well as the names of countries are sometimesreferred to as feminine gender, i.e. by means of `she`. This fact is usuallycalled personification. e.g.:
a. Sam joined the famous whaler `Globe`. She was a ship on whichany young man would be proud to sail.
b. England prides herself with her greenness and tidiness.
Such nouns as masculine gender. Nouns like `nature, country,mercy, faith, hope, modesty` are used as feminine gender.
1.8 Typological category of plurality
The system of grammatical forms expressing grammatical degree(number) is termed (called) the category of plurality. This category. In comparinglanguages the formants indicating this category are usually added to the stemof nouns (or pronouns). WE should distinguish the logical number (degree) andgrammatical number. From the logical point of view proper nouns usually denotea single thing or a person. e.g.: John, Собир, London, Тўйтепа, etc. The common nouns are used todenote common type of things, of course, logically more than one.
As we know that the category of plurality denotes more thanoneness of things, people or phenomena. Grammatically it can be based inEnglish on the opposition of `zero morpheme and the suffix – s, – en, and rootchanging abilities of some nouns: i.e. – s, – en, in Uzbek it is based on theopposition of zero morpheme and suffix – лар, i.e. – лар. Among the parts ofspeech this category is distinguished grammatically by nouns, pronouns andverbs. In comparing languages this category may also be denoted lexically bynumerals. (i.e. two, fifteen, thirty, thousand‑иккт, ўн беш, ўттиз, минг)Numerals are not used in the grammatical plural forms because in the pluralform they became substantive zed i.e. they become nouns (икктлар, олтичилар).
It should be kept in mind that there are languages having `dual`and `trial` numbers pronouns – ic-wif-we where wit denoted a dual number)
Plurality of nouns. Uzbek nouns and pronouns usually denote thisnumber by means of suffix – лар (eg: одам – лар, муттаҳам-лар) Which can sometimes be used also to denote respect to a person whois spoken about. e.g.: Дадамлар келдилар. (But you have to keep in mind that you can’t have mote than onefather).
English nouns can express the notion of plurality in the followingways:
a) by means of suffixes:
– s, – es (wife-wives, head-heads)
– en (ox-oxen, child-children, brother-brotheren);
– a datum-data, sanatorium-sanatoria, phenomenon-phenomena) etc.
b) by changing the root vowel (man-men, goose-geese)
Plurality of verbs TheEnglish verbs can denote the notion of plurality in the following ways:
a) by opposing the finite verbs in the third person singular tothe other forms with zero morpheme: live-s live#
b) by means of suppletive forms of auxiliary verbs:
am, is-are; was-were; have-has-had;
The Uzbek verbs usually express plurality by means of thefollowing suffixes:
a) – лар (келди) лар;
б) – миз, – сиз, – гниз, дилар (бора-миз, келадилар);
с) – ш, – иш (кел-ишди);
This category can be expressed by means of personal pronouns inboth languages; Cl.: I-we; me-us; he/she/ it-they; In Uzbek: мен-бизж сен-сизлар; у-улар.
Lexically this category may be expressed in both languages withthe help of numerals. e.g.: anmy-қзниш, dual‑иккилик, majority‑кўпчилик, family‑оила, pair‑жуфт, double‑икки(лантирилган), etc.
Plurality can sometimes be expressed by means of prepositions(between, among‑орасида, ўртасида)_adverbs (arm-in-arm‑йўлланилиб),indefinite pronouns (some‑бир неча, анча, бироз), verbs (join-қўшилмоқбирлашмоқ, gathe‑тўпламоқ), get together – йиғилиқunite – бирлашмоқ) also by quantitative markers (two-seater, many staged,two-storeyed): and in Uzbek (кўпхад, қўшариқ, учкўприк).
2.9. Typological category of person
The category of person should be dealt with in close connectionwith the category of number (plurality). Because in the languages ofIndo-European family these categories are expressed by one and the samemorpheme simultaneously i.e. a morpheme denoting number at the same timeexpresses person as well. For instance, in Latin the morpheme-n+ in such formsas amant, habent, Legunt, amabant, habebunt, etc. expresses simultaneously thethird person and the plural number.
In the comparing languages the category of person is acharacteristic feature of pronouns and verbs. They (languages) make distinctionbetween the three classes of personal pronouns denoting respectively theperson(s) spoken to (the second person) and the person(s) (or things) spokenabout (the third person).
singular plural
1‑person-the speaker the speaker and same other people
2‑person-a person spoken to more than one people spoken to
3‑person-a person of a thing spoken about some people orthings spoken about
The category of person in verbs is represented by the 1st,2nd, 3rd person and it expresses the relations betweenthe speaker, the person or people spoken to and other person or people spokenabout. However this system doesn’t hold good for the modern English verb andthis is for two reasons:
1) there is no distinction of persons in the plural number. Thusthe form live may within the plural number be connected with a subject of anyperson e.g.
you} live
we
they
2) there is no distinction of numbers in the 1‑and 2 – person.Thus the form «live» in these person may refer to both one and more than onesubject. Thus the opposition all other persons expresses relation of the 3rdwith any person of both numbers i.e. stem-s \ stem – i. The marked member ofthe position differs greatly from that of imparked in form and in meaning, Itshould be kept in mind that in the Subjunctive mood that form «live» denotesany person of both numbers.
The ending ‘s’ having four meanings to express simultaneously isof course a synthetic feature standing rather by itself in the generalstructure of Modern English.
There a special subclass of the English verbs which do not fitinto the system of person and number described above and they must be treatedseparately both in a practical study of the language and in theoreticalanalysis. They are called modal verbs ‘can, may, must’ etc. Being delective verbsthey do not admit any suffix to their stem and do not denote any person ornumber and usually accompany the notional verbs in speech giving themadditional meanings of notions as ability permission, necessity or obligationetc.
The verb «be» has a system of its own both in the presentindicative and in the pastI Am Was He Is Was She Is Was It Is Was You Are Were They Are Were
There is own more special class of the English verbs calledimpersonal verbs. Having the suffix – s in the third person singular of thepresent simple they do not denote any person or thing as the doer of theaction. Such verbs usually denote natural phenomena such as to rain, to hail tosnow to drizzle, to thunder, to lighten, to warm up, e.g. it often rains inautumn. It is thundering and lightening.
The personal system of the Uzbek verbs is as followsIndic mood Person Singular Plural Past I Bordim bordik II Bording Bordinrizlar III Bordi Bordilar borishdi Present I boraman Boramiz II Boras an Borasiz(lar) III Boradi Boradilar Future I Boraman bormoqchiman Boramiz bormoqchimiz II Borasan bormpqchisan Boramiz bormoqchimiz III Boradi bormoqchi Boradilar borishmoqchi Imperative mood I Boray Boraylik II Borgin Boringlar, boringiz III Borishsin Boringizlar
In Uzbek we have no the so called modal verbs and impersonal verbsas it is understood in English or Russian (дождит, смеркается, темнеет, похолодало). The functions of the modal verbs are performed in Uzbek bymeans of the adjectives such as зарур, керак, даркор, лозим etc. As to the impersonal verbs in Uzbek we use the so called impersonalverbs which are combined only with one and the nouns denoting the names ofnatural phenomena, such as кор, ёмгир, дул, etc. e.g.: Ёмгир ёгади, чакмок чакди.
Dealing with the category of person attention must be to the useof the pronominal forms in transposition. The value of such 'metaphors' may betraced in many modern languages. The first to be mentioned in English is theuse of the personal pronouns 'we, you, they' in patterns where they aresynonymous with the formal generic 'one' which denotes anyone who occurs in adefinite situation. Semantically it corresponds to the Uzbek generic words as 'одам, киши, инсон. e.g.:
You (we) don ' (know what to do in such a situation.
One doesn’t know what to do in such a situation.
Бундайхолатда нима килишингни билмайсан киши
Инсон зотиборки яратгани унутиб фарзанди томон интилади.
The so called 'editorial 'we’ (Lat. plural is modestial) is wellfor instance, as used in many modern languages by authors of scientific papers,monographs or articles in newspapers, etc. The pronoun 'we' is commonly used inproverbs, e.g.:
We shall see what we shall see.
We never know the value of the water till the well is dry,
Kuduq qurimaguncha (ariqdan oqqan) suvni qadrini bilmaymiz
Compare the Uzbek proverbs which are also addressed to anyone whoappears in a situation, e.g.
Nimaeksang shuni o’rasan.
Sarqdrini zargar biladi.
Bilib turib bilmaslikka olamiz.
Expressive affect of great subtlety will be found in the use ofthe pronoun 'we' in such examples;
‘I say’ said Hurstwood, as they came up the theatre lobby, we areexceedingly charming this evening.
'How do we feel today?' said the doctor facing the patient.
2.10. Typological categories of tense and aspect
Tense is the form of the verb which indicates time of the actionfrom the point of view of the moment of speech, hi English we distinguish threetenses; past, present and past.
Past tense denotes an action which has taken place at a definitetime before the moment of speech.
Present tense denotes a regular or recurrent action happeningaround the moment of speech.
Future tense denotes an action which will or going to happen afterthe moment of speech.
The English verbs also distinguish the category of aspectcontinuous process. The notion of aspect can also be described as a form of theverb that shows habituality, continuance or completion of the action or stateexpressed by the root of the verb. In Uzbek grammars aspect is not studied as aseparate category of the verb as it not always expressed distinctly as it seemsbecause of the lack, of the analytical forms.
In the comparing languages the categories of tense and aspect areso closely merged together that it is impossible to treat them separately. Oneand the same form of the verb serves to express tense and aspect at the sametime and therefore they should be regarded as a 'tense – aspect forms 'of theverb.
In the comparing languages we distinguish three aspects of theverb forms; Simple (Common or Indefinite), Continuous and Perfect aspects.Combining with all the tense forms of the verb they form the so called 'tenseaspect forms of the verb.
Present simple expresses a usual, recurrent or habitual actionthat takes place in our everyday life, e.g.
The sun.rises in (lie East.
We love our mothers.
Children go to school at the age of 6.
'They call me Nancy' r said the girl.
I know him well (Stative action)
The verbs in the present simple may often be accompanied byadverbs of frequency such as often, sometimes, usually, seldom, never, etc.indicating habitual action. The main indicator of the English verb forms in thepresent simple is the opposite 'live | live – s'. (See the preceding chapter.)
As has been mentioned above Past simple denotes an action whichhappened at a definite time before the moment of speech. Definite time of theaction may be clarified by means of such time expressions as 'yesterday, lastweek, two years ago, when I was a child, etc. The main indicator of the verbform in the past simple of the English verbs is the formant '–ed' (for theregular verbs) and the change of the root vowels (or consonants) for theirregular verbs, e.g.; live – d, help – ed, give – gave, send – sent.
(As to the verb forms in Uzbek see the table in the chapterdealing with the category of person.)
The verbs in the Future Simple, as has been mentioned above,indicate the action which will or going to happen after the moment of speech.The main indicators of the future action is the auxiliaries – will (shall), andgoing to' which usually precede the infinitive,
e.g.: Give me your suitcase, please, I will carry it for you.
I'm going to visit my grandfather on Sunday.
Present Continuous denotes an action happening now, i.e. at themoment of speech. In English the predicate verb is formed by means of theauxiliary verb
(be – Participle I.) of the notional verb which correspond to theUzbek verb forms in the example of the verb 'bor’:I person Singular
Аяпман
Мокдаман Plural
Аяпмиз
Мокдамиз II person Singular
Аяпсан
Мокдасан Plural
Аяпсиз
Мокдасиз III person Singular
Аяпти
Мокда Plural
Аяпчилар
Мокдалар
Ишмокда
The Present Continuous expresses three ideas;
1) an activity happening now, i.e. at the moment of speech.
Cf.I It is raining. The child is crying. They are looking at you.
2) an activity happening around now, but perhaps not at the momentof speech.
Cf.; I'm reading a very interesting book on astrology these days.
3) a planned future arrangement.
Cf. I'm leaving for London next week,
Past Continuous of the English verb is formed by means of thecombination of 'was (were) ~P1 of the notional verb and denotes an actionhappening (in progress) at a definite time in the past. Definite time may beexpressed by means of time expressions or by a. clause of time connected to theprinciple one with the; conjunctions while and when. In Uzbek in the pastcontinuous the verbs may take the suffixes.
e.g.: I was having a shower when you rang me up (at seveno'clock/.
Compare: I was doing my homework at 7.00 last night. /PastContinuous – I was in the middle of the action.)
b) I did my homework last night. /Past Simple – I started andfinished)
Future Continuous is formed by means of the auxiliary 'will (orshall) be – PI f of the notional verb and expresses an action taking place inprogress at a definite time after the moment of speech.
Cf.: I shall be waiting for you at the arrival hall at J o'clock(when you plane arrive at the airport).
As is seen from this example Uzbek future continuous is expressedwith the help of the suffix '-ётган' and auxiliary verb булл-мок.
Perfect aspect denotes an action that as happened before now.Present Perfect relates past actions and states to the present. In a sensePresent Perfect is a present tense. It looks back from the present into tрe past and expresses acompleted action up to the present moment,
I've travelled a lot in Africa.
It can also express an action or state which began in the past andcontinues to the present.
Present Perfect Continuous is used to express a) an activity whichcontinues to the present.
Conclusion
Now let me sum up my qualification work. My qualification workconsists of for parts. The tasks and objectives are given in introduction. Theidea of my work is given in the main part, where showed the novelty of thework, which contains the comparative analyses of the English language with theUzbek language. The similarities in gender in the English language and in theUzbek language are given in the qualification work, compared the tenses whichexist in the English language with Uzbek language. The Present Continuous Tenseexpresses the prolongation of the action.
Example: I am sitting in Uzbek language to express this tense isused only simple tense Мен утираман.
Different examples are given in the work which shows thecomparative analyses of both languages.
In conclusion summed up my qualification work, and suggest to usethe material in the lyceums and universities.
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