The manager as a teacher: selected aspects of stimulation of scientsfsc thinking

RUSSIANACADEMY OF GOVERNMENT
SERVICEAT THE PRESIDENT OF RUSSIAN
FEDERATION
INSTITUTEOF INCREASE OF QUALIFICATION
OFGOVERNMENT EMPLOYEES
ATTESTATIONWORK
 
THEMANAGER AS A TEACHER:
SELECTEDASPECTS
OFSTIMULATION OF SCIENTIFIC THINKING
Author:Vladislav I. Kaganovskiy,
studentof the Group # 02.313
ofprofessional re-training
insphere «HR management»
MOSCOW
2006

“Warsare won by school teacher”
Ottovon Bismark
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Selectedaspects of stimulationofscientific thinking
As is generally known,science and education are one of strategicresources of the state, one of fundamental forms of culture of civilization, aswell as competitive advantage of every individual. Global discoveries of modernlife occur both deep in and at the junction of various sciences, and at that,often and often the more unusual the combination of sciences is, the widerrange of scientific prospects is promised by non-standard conspectus of theircombination, for example, biology and electronics, philology and mathematics,etc. Discoveries in one area stimulate development in other spheres of scienceas well. Scientific development of a society isa programmable and predictable phenomenon, and this issue is specifically dealtby the futurology science. Modern techniques of pedagogy, psychology, medicine  andother sciences do not only enable orientation and informational “pumping” of humanbrain, but also the formation of an individual’s character optimally suitable forthe role of scientist. Unlike a computer, any human being has intuition — theelement of thinking so far in no way replaceable (although some developments inthis sphere are coming into being). Narrow specialization of scientists tapers thescope of their activity and is explained by an immense volume of information requiredfor modern scientist. This problem is being solved (partially though) through avariety of actions – intellectualization of computers, “simplification” ofinformation (its reduction to short, but data intensive/high-capacity formulasand formulations), application of psycho-technologies. Psycho-technologies (mnemonics,educational games, hypnopaedia, (auto-) hypnosis, propaganda and advertisingmethods and techniques, including technotronic and pharmacological /nootropicpreparations/, etc.) make it possible to solve the following problem. A “blackbox” concept applied in computer science designates a system into which thechaotic information is entered, and in a little while a version, hypothesis or theoryis produced. A human being represents (with some reservations though) such asystem. Information processing occurs consciously and subconsciously based oncertain rules (program). The more information processing rules we enter, the fewernumber of degrees of freedom remains in the system. Hence, it is desirable toenter the very basic axioms. Differences in programs (even mere default — butwithout lack of key information) form differences in opinions and argumentation.The longer the period of program operation is (including based on internal biologicalclock), the greater the effect one can expect. The provability of success isdirectly proportional to the quantity of samples/tests, hence it is desirableto build in basic mechanisms of scientific thinking at the earliest age possiblein a maximum wide audience and to stimulate their active work, and in certaintime intervals make evaluation and update of “programs” of thinking. “Comprehensionby an individual of new skills occurs only step-wise. Transition between two followingmental conditions takes place: “I’ll never understand how this can be done andI’ll never be able to do it” and “it is so obvious that I can’t understand whatneeds to be explained here”. Except for early childhood, the leaps of this kindoccur when mastering readingand mastering writing, mastering all standard extensions of set of numbers(fractional, negative, rational numbers, but not complex numbers), when masteringthe concept of infinitesimal value andits consequences (the limits), differentiation,when mastering integration, complex of specificabilities forming the phenomenon  of information generating (in other words, inthe course of transition from studying science or art to purposeful/consciousprofessional  creative work). We hereby note that at any of these stages, forthe reasons not quite clear to us, the leap may not occur. It means that certainability has not turned into a stage of subconscious professional applicationand cannot be used randomly by an individual for the solution of problems he/shefaces. At that, the required algorithm may be well known. In other words, anindividual knows letters. He/she knows how to write them. He/she can form wordsfrom them. He/she can write a sentence. But! This work would require all his/herintellectual and mainly physical effort.  For the reason that all resources of thebrain are spent for the process of writing, errors are inevitable. It isobvious that despite formal literacy (the presence of knowledge of algorithm) anindividual cannot be engaged in any activity for which the ability to write is oneof the basic or at least essential skills. Similar state of an individual is widelyknown in modern pedagogy and is called functional illiteracy. Similarly, onecan speak of functional inability to integrate (quite a frequent reason for theexclusion of the 1st and 2nd grade students from physical and mathematical departments).Curiously enough, at higher levels the leap does not occur so often, to theextent that it is even considered normal. The formula: “An excellent student,but failed to make proper choice of vocation. Well, he’s not a physicist byvirtue of thinking – well, that’s the way” (the leap allowing to mechanically employspecific style of thinking / physical in this case / did not occur). As toautomatic creativity, these concepts in general are considered disconnected,and individuals for whom the process of creation of new essentialities in scienceand culture is the ordinary professional work not demanding special strain ofeffort are named geniuses. However, a child sick with functional illiteracy wouldperceive his peer who has mastered writing to the extent of being able of doingit without looking into a writing-book, a genius, too! Thus, we arrive at theconclusion that creativity at the level of simple genius isbasically accessible to everyone. Modern education translatesto pupils’ knowledge (of which, according to research, 90 % is being well and almostimmediately forgotten) and very limited number of skills which would in astep-wise manner move the individual to the following stage of intellectual orphysical development. One should know right well that endless school classesand home work, exhausting sports trainings are no more than eternal “throwing ofcube” in the hope that lucky number will come out – in the hope of a “click”.And the “click” may occur at the first dash. It may never occur as well.Accordingly, the philosophy “repetition is the mother of learning” in effect addsup to a “trial-and-error method” which has been for a long time and fairly brandedas such by TRIZists (the followers of Inventive Problems Solution Theory). As amatter of fact, the uneven nature of transition between “in”-and “out”- statesat the moment of “click” suggests that it is a question of structuraltransformation of mentality. That is, “click” requires destruction of a structure(a pattern of thought, a picture of the world) and creation of another one inwhich a new skill is included “hardwarily” to be used automatically.Restrictions stimulate internal activity. It is proven that creative task “Drawsomething” without setting pre-determined conditions with restrictions is carriedout less productively and less originally than the task: “Draw an unusualanimal with a pencil during 30 minutes” (Sergey Pereslegin). Required personal qualities– traits of character /temperamental attributes/ may be divided into four conventionalgroups: necessary, desirable, undesirable and inadmissible. Knowledge can bedivided into two groups: means and ways of information processing (includingphilosophy, logic, mathematics, etc.), the so-called meta-skills or meta-knowledge/which are universal and applicable in any field of activity), and the subject(subjects) matter per se. From the view point of methodology all methods ofscientific knowledge can be divided intofive basic groups: 1. Philosophical methods. These include dialectics andmetaphysics. 2. General scientific (general logical) approaches and researchmethods — analysis and synthesis, induction and deduction,abstraction, generalization, idealization, analogy, modeling, stochastic-statisticalmethods, systemic approach,etc. 3. Special-scientific methods: totality of techniques, research methods usedin one or another fieldof knowledge. 4. Disciplinary methods, i.e. a set of methods applied in one oranother discipline.5. Methods of interdisciplinary research – a set of several synthetic, integrativemethods generated mainly at the cross-disciplinary junction of branches ofscience. Scientific cognition is characterized by two levels — empirical andtheoretical. Characteristic feature of empirical knowledge is the fact fixing activity. Theoretical cognition is substantial cognition /knowledgeper se/ which occurs at the level of high order abstraction. There two ways toattempt to solve a problem:  search for the necessary information or investigateit independently by means of observation,experiments and theoretical thinking.Observation and experiment are the most important methodsof research inthe process of scientific cognition. It is often said that theory is generalizationof practice, experience or observations. Scientific generalizations often implythe use of a number of special logicalmethods: 1) Universalization /globbing/ method which consists in that general points/aspects/and properties observed in the limited set of experiments hold true for all possiblecases; 2) Idealizationmethod consisting in that conditionsare specified at which processes described in laws occur in their pure form,i.e. the way they cannot occur inreality; 3) Conceptualization method consisting in that concepts borrowed fromother theories areentered into the formulation of laws, these concepts acquiring acceptably /accurate/exact meaning and significance. Major methods of scientific cognition are: 1) Methodof ascending from abstract to concrete. The process of scientific cognition isalways connected with transition from extremely simple concepts to moredifficult concrete ones. 2) Method of modeling and principle of system. It consistsin that the object inaccessible to directresearch isreplaced with its model. A model possesses similarity with the object in termsof its properties that are of interest for the researcher. 3) Experiment and observation.In the course of experiment the observer would isolate artificially a number ofcharacteristics ofthe investigated systemand examine their dependence on other parameters. It is necessary to take intoaccount that about 10 — 25 % of scientific information is proven outdated annuallyand in the near future this figure can reach 70%; according to other sources, thevolume of information doubles every 5 years. It means that the system of education/teachingand “non-stop” retraining applied in some cases will become a universal and mandatoryphenomenon, whereas the boundary between necessary and desirable knowledge willbecome more vague and conventional. In modern conditions active and purposefulstudying of someone’s future sphere (spheres) of activity should start 4-5years prior to entering the university. Considerable development will be seenin “preventive” (pre-emptive, anticipatory) education taking into accountprospects of development of science for 3-5-10 years from no on. Masterfulknowledge of methods of scientific-analytical and creative thinking is becomingthe same social standard and a sign of affiliation to elite social groups as,for example, the presence of higher education diploma. The lawof inverse proportionality of controllabilityand the ability to development says the more the systemis controllable, the less it is capable of development. Controllable developmentmay only be overtaking/catching up/. Now, a few thoughts about errors in thecourse of training.  Traditionalapproach tends to consider an error as the lack of learning, assiduity,attention, diligence, etc. As a result the one to blameis a trainee. Error should be perceived as aconstructive element in the system ofheuristic training. An educational institution is just the institute where theperson should make mistakes under the guidance of a teacher. An importantelement of cognitive system is professional terminology. The lack of knowledgeof terms would not release anyone from the need to understand… Each term contains the concentrated mass ofnuances and details distinguishing the scientific vision of the matter inquestion from the ordinary, unscientific understanding… It should be mentionedthat the process of teaching/educating/ is a stress which has pluses andminuses, whereas the process of studying is a much smaller stress. One of themain tasks in terms of (self-) education may be the formation of active desire(internal requirement) to study and be engaged in (self-) education withindependent search of appropriate means and possibilities. Special considerationshould be given to teaching/training means and methods, i.e. what is comprehensibleto one group of trainees may be useless for others. Major differentiation wouldbe seen in age categories plus individual features. Training games are quite auniversal tool used for a wide range of subjects and development of practicalskills, since the game reflects the trainee’s behavior in reality. It is asystem that provides an immediate feedback. Instead of listening to a lecturethe trainee is given the individual lesson adapted for his/her needs. Game ismodeling of reality and method of influencing it by the trainee. Some minusesof game include conventionality and schematic nature of what is going on and thedevelopment of the trainee’s behavioral and cogitative stereotypes. Majorstrategic consequences of wide spread of scientific thinking skills may includesystemic (including quantitative — qualitative) changes in the system of science,education and industry, sharp increase of labor force mobility (both “white”and “blue collar”) and possible global social-economic and social-politicalchanges.
Part1. Meta-skills:
 
Passpreliminary test by means of Kettel’s 16-factorquestionnaire (form C), test your IQ (Intelligence Quotient)using Aizenc’s test. Undergo testing for operativeand long-term memory, attention distribution, noise immunity and will. Plan thedevelopment of these qualities in your character.
Methods of workwith the text
(W. Tuckman “EducationalPsychology. From Theory to Application”. Florida. State University. 1992):
1. Look through thetext before reading it in detail to determine what it is about.
2. Focus yourattention on the most significant places(semantic nodes) in the text.
3. Keep shortrecord (summary/synopsis) of the most significant facts.
4. Keep closewatch of understanding of what you read. If something appears not quiteunderstood,re-read the paragraph once again.
5. Check up andgeneralize (analyze) what you have read in respect to the purpose of yourreading.
6. Check up the correctnessof understanding of separate words and thoughtsin reference literature.
7. Quickly resumethe work (reading) if you have been interrupted.
Training of fastreading – “Fast Reader 32” Program. Download the program: www.nodevice.ru/soft/windows/education/trenning/5072.html kornjakov.ru/index.htm, www.freesoft.ru/? id=670591 — for handheld computer.Plan 2-week “result-oriented” trainings — your currentmaximum is + 50%.
Methodsof criticalandcreative thinking
Criticalthinking:
1. Analyticalthinking (information analysis, selection of necessary facts, comparison, collationof facts, phenomena). Useful questions in this connection are “who?”, “what?”, “where?”,“when?”, “why?”, “where?”, “what for?”, “how?”, “how many/much?”, “what?”(“which?”)to be asked in the most unusual combinations, while trying to find (to suppose)all options of answers.
2. Associativethinking (determination of associations with the previously studied familiarfacts, phenomena, determination of associations with new qualitiesof a subject, phenomenon, etc.).
3. Independenceof thinking (the absence of dependence on authorities and/or stereotypes,prejudices, etc.).
4. Logicthinking (the ability to build the logic of provability of the decision made,the internal logic of a problem being solved, the logic of sequence of actionsundertaken forthe solution of the problem, etc.).
5. Systemicthinking (the ability to consider the object, the problem in question within theintegrity oftheir ties/relations and characteristics).
Creativethinking:
1. Ability of mentalexperimentation, spatial imagination.
2. Ability ofindependent transfer of knowledge for the decision of new problem, task, searchof new decisions.
3. Combinatoryabilities (the ability to combine the earlier known methods, ways of task/problemsolution in a new combined,complex way – the morphological analysis).
4. Prognosticabilities (the ability to anticipate possible consequences of the decisionsmade, ability to establish cause-and-effectrelations).
5. Heuristic wayof thinking, intuitive inspiration, insight. The above stated abilities can besupplemented by specific abilities to work with information, for which purpose itis important to be able to select required (for specific goals) information fromvarious sources to analyze it, systematize and generalize the data obtained in accordancewith the cognitive task set forth, the ability to reveal problems in variousfields of knowledge, in the surrounding reality, to make grounded hypotheses fortheir solution. It is also necessary to be able to put experiments (not onlymental, but also natural), make well-reasoned conclusions, build the system ofproofs, to be able to process statistically the data obtained from test andexperimental checks, to be able to generate new ideas, possible ways of searchof decisions, registration of results, to be able to work in the collective, whilesolving cognitive, creative tasks in cooperation with others, at that playingdifferent social roles, as well as to be master of artand culture of communication.
Research andsearch methodsof information processing:
1. Independentsearch and selection of information on specific problem.
2. Information analysisfor the purpose of selection of facts, data necessary for the description of theobject of study, its characteristics, qualities; for selection of  facts conduciveto the provability  and/or refutation of the vision of the task/problem solution;building of facts, data analyzed in the logical sequence of proofs, etc.
3. Definition,vision of problems that need examination and solution.
4. Makinghypotheses with definition of ways to check (solve) them.
5. Determinationof methods, ways of solution of the investigated problem, stages of its solutionby an individual or joint, group effort.
6. Registrationof results of research or search activity.
7. Argumentationof the results achieved.
8. Projecting theoccurrence of new problems in the given area of knowledge,practical activities.
Universal planof scientific management (SM)
1. Statement ofan overall goal (task) — minimum, optimum and maximum.
2. Setting of intermediategoals (tasks), their prioritization, time-frames of implementation.
3. Mechanisms (methods,schemes) of their achievement.
4. Requiredlogistical, informational andfinancial support.
5. Personnel (includingstatement of problem before each employee following detailed instructionaladvice and determination of implementation time-frames).
6. Ways andmeans of control, possible failures and disturbances, methods, time-frames, personnel,materials, equipment, information andfinance to rectify the latter.
7. Taskadjustment in case of changes of situation, adaptation of the work performed (atall stages) to a new problem.
TRIZ – InventiveProblems Solution Theory (IPST)
Algorithm ofactivity:
1. A. Set atask.  B. Imagine ideal result (isthere a problem at all?). C. What prevents from the achievement of a goal (findcontradiction), why does it prevent from its achievement (reveal cause-and-effectrelations). D. On what conditions prevention will not occur?
2. A. Required(possible) internal changes (the sizes: larger, smaller, longer, shorter, thicker,thinner, deeper, shallower, vertically, horizontally, sloping, in parallel, inledges, in layers/slices, transpose/rearrange,  crosswise, convergence,  to surround,to mix/stir, borders; the quantity: more, less, proportions, to divide, attach,add, remove; form: usual, unusual, rounded, straight, jags, unevenness, rough,equal, even/smooth, damage proof, delays, accidents, “foolproofing” andprotection from larceny, to add; movement: to accelerate, slow down, stirup/revive/brighten up, stop, direction, deviation, pulling, pushing away, toblock, lift, lower/pull down, rotate, fluctuate, arouse; condition: hot, cooler,firmer, softer, opened, closed, pre-assembled, disposable, combined, divided,hardening, liquid, gaseous, powder-like, wearability,to grease, moist, dry, isolated, gelatinous, plasmic,elastic, resists, superposes/matches). B. Division of an object (and/or subject)into independent parts: a. Segregation of weak (includingpotentially weak) part (parts). b. Segregation of requiredand sufficient part (parts). c. Segregation ofidentical (including duplicating, similar) parts(including in other systems). d. Divisioninto parts with different functions. C. Externalchanges. D. Changes in the adjacent objects. a. Establishment of links between thepreviously independent objects performingone work (including a network). b. Removal ofobjects because of transfer oftheir functions to other objects. c. Increase in the number of objects at theexpense of the reverse side of the area. E. Measurement of time: faster, moreslowly, longer, eternal, single-step, cyclic, time-wise marked, update,variable. F. Ascertainment of ties with other fields of knowledge (how is this contradictionsolved there? what can be borrowed from there at all?). Prototypes in nature. G.Read the dictionaries for verbal associations (including non-standard). H. Incase of failure revert to the initial problem to expand its situation/formulation.
3. A. Introducenecessary changes in the object (work). B. Introduce changes in otherobjects connected with the given one. C. Introducechanges in methods and expand the sphere of use of the object. D. Ask questions“how can we achieve the same result without using this product (using it partially)or without doing this work (doing it partially)?”, “how can we make the product(work) easier, more durable, safer, cheaper, in a more accelerated manner,pleasant, useful, universal, convenient, “friendly”, more ergonomic, harmless,pure, reliable, effective, attractive and bright, portable,valuable, status ranking, etc. E. Conduct preliminary tests, finish off, if necessary.Develop IGM (income generation mechanism). F. Check the applicability of the solution(s)found in respect of other problems. G. Take out a patent for the idea. Seealso: www.triz-journal.com, www.altshuller.ru/
Concepts, substanceand laws of dialectics
1) The world (thebeing, reality) exists objectively, i.e. irrespective of the will and conscienceof a human being. 2) The world has not been created by anybody and cannot bedestroyed by anybody. It exists and develops in accordance with natural laws. Thereare no supernatural forces in it. 3) The world is unique and there are no “extra-mundane”spheres and phenomena in it (standing “above the world” or “beyond the world”) thatare absolutely abjoint from each other. Diverse objects and the phenomena ofthe reality represent various kinds of moving matter and energy. 4) The worldis coherent and is in eternal, continuous movement, development. Objects of thereality interact with each other, influence upon each other. In the process of developmentqualitative changes in objects, including natural transitionfrom the lowest forms to the higher, take place. 5)Natural development of a matter through a number of natural steps (the inorganic/inanimatenature/abiocoen/ – life – society) has led to the origin of human being, intellect,conscience. The crucial role in the segregation of human being from animality andthe formation of its conscience was played by labor, its social nature,transition of the human being’s animal ancestors to regular productionand application of instruments of labor. 6) Society beingthe higher step of development of substance includes all lowest forms andlevels (mechanical, physical, chemical, biological) on the basis of which ithas arisen, but is not reduced to them only. It exists and develops on thebasis of social laws which qualitatively differ from the laws of the lowestforms. The paramount law of social development is the determinant role of productionin the life of the society. Mode of production of material life conditions social,political and spiritual processes of life in general. 7) The world is knowable.Human knowledge is unlimited by nature, but is limited historically at eachstage of its development and for each separate individual. The criterion for theverity of thinking and cognition is public practice. In recent years the need arosefor the formation of higher form of dialectic-materialistic outlook — “spiritual materialism”. Spiritual materialism extends the line of classicalmaterialism in terms of recognition of objective character of existence, itscognoscibility, natural evolution of substance from the lowest to the higherforms, exclusion of notions of supernatural from scientific beliefs/notions,etc. At the same time, spiritual materialism overcomes absolutization ofsuperiority of material over the spiritual, contraposition and discontinuity ofthese fundamentals inherent in the former forms of materialism, and directstowards the revelation of their unity, complex interrelation, interpenetration,definite fixation of relations in which the material and spiritual determine eachother in the process of functioning and development of objects. Threemain laws of dialectics are: the lawof transition from quantity to quality,the law of unity and conflict of oppositesand the law ofnegation of negation. There is more to itthan these three major laws in dialectics. Abscque hoc, there are a number ofother dialectic laws concretizingand supplementing organic laws of dialectics expressed in categories “substanceand phenomenon”, “content and form”, “contingency and necessity”, “cause andeffect”, “possibility and reality”, “individual,special and general”, the dialectic triad: thesis,antithesis and synthesis.Categories and laws of dialectics exist within a certain system in which thesubstance/essence of dialectics proper isexpressed.
Analysisof the decision-making methods without use of numerical values of probability (exemplificativeof the investment projects).
In practicesituations are often found when it is difficult enough to estimate the value ofprobability of an event. In such cases methods are often times applied which donot involve using numerical valuesof probabilities: maximax – maximization of themaximum resultof the project; maximin – maximization of the minimum result of the project;minimax – minimizationof maximum losses; compromise – Gurvitz’s criterion: weighing of minimum andmaximum results of the project. For decision-makingon realization of investment projects a matrix is built. Matrix columnscorrespond to the possible states of nature, i.e. situations which are beyond ofcontrol of the head of an enterprise. Lines of the matrix correspond topossible alternatives of realization of the investment project – strategieswhich may be chosen by the director. The matrix cells specify the results ofeach strategy for each state of nature. Example: The enterprise analyzes theinvestment civil-engineering design of a line for the production of new kind ofproduct. There are two possibilities: the construction of a high power capacityline or to construct low power line. Net present value of the project dependson the demand for production, whereas the exact volume of demand is unknown,however, it is known that there are three basic possibilities: absence ofdemand, average demand and great demand. The matrix cells (see table 1) show netpresent value of the project at a certain state of nature, provided that theenterprise will choose the appropriate strategy. The last line shows whatstrategy is optimum ineach state of nature. The maximax decision would be to construct a high powercapacity line: the maximum net present value will thus be 300 which correspondto the great demand situation. The maximum criterion reflects the position ofthe enterprise director – the optimist ignoring possible losses. The maximindecision, i.e. to construct a low power line: the minimum result of thisstrategy is the loss of 100 (which is better than possible loss of 200 in caseof construction of a high power capacity line). The maximin criterion reflects theposition of the director who is in no way disposed towards taking risk and isnotable for his/her extreme pessimism. This criterion is quite useful insituations where risk is especially high (for example when the existence of anenterprise depends on the results of the investment project). Threat is determinedby two components: possibilities andintention of the contestant.
Table 1. Exampleof construction of the matrix of strategy and states of nature for theinvestment project.Strategy State of nature: absence of demand State of nature: medium demand State of nature: great demand Construct a low power line 100 150 150 Construct a high power capacity line 200 200 300 Optimum strategy for the given state of nature Construct a low power line Construct a high power capacity line Construct a high power capacity line
To apply theminimax criterion let us construct “a matrix of regrets” (see table 2). Thecells of this matrix show the extent/value of “regret”, i.e  the differencebetween actual and the best results which could have been achieved by theenterprise at the given state of nature. “Regret” shows what is being lost bythe enterprise as a result of makingwrong decision. The minimax decision corresponds to the strategy, whereby themaximum regret is minimal. In our case of low power line maximum regret makes 150(in great demand situation) and for a high power capacity line – 100 (in theabsence of demand). As 100
Table 2.
Example of structureof the “matrix of regrets” for minimax criterionStrategy State of nature: absence of demand State of nature: medium demand State of nature: great demand Construct a low power line (-100) – (-100) =0 200 – 150=50 300 – 150=150 Construct a high power capacity line (-100) – (-200) =100 200 – 200=0 300 – 300=0 Optimum strategy for the given state of nature Construct a low power line Construct a high power capacity line Construct a high power capacity line
Gurvitz’scriterion consists in that minimum and maximum results of each strategy areassigned “weight”. Evaluation of result of each strategy equals to the sum ofmaximum and minimum results multiplied by corresponding weight.
Let’s assumethat the weight of the minimum result is equal to 0.5, the weight of the maximumresult equals to 0.5 as well (it is the probabilistic characteristic; in thiscase probability of onset of any option of events = 50 %, as far as we have 2 options: 50 % + 50 % = 100 %; if there will be 3 options, then the ratio can be 33,33(%) for each or, for example, 20 %, 25 % and 55 %). Then the calculation foreach strategy will be the following:
Low power line:0.5 х (-100) + 0.5 х 150 = (-50) + 75 = 25;
High powercapacity line: 0.5 х (-200) + 0.5 х 300 = (-100) + 150 = 50.
Gurvitz’scriterion testifies in favor of the construction of high power capacity line (as50> 25). Advantage and simultaneously disadvantage of Gurvitz’s criterionconsists in the necessity of assigning weights to the possible outcomes; itallows taking into account specificity of situation, however, assigning weightsalways implies some subjectivity. As a result of the fact that in realsituations there is often lack of information on the probabilities of outcomesthe use of the above methods in engineering of investment projects is quite justified.However, the choice of concrete criterion depends on the specificity ofsituations and individual preferences of an analyst (the company’s strategy).
“Data mining”, getting/acquisitionof information (it should be noted that many modern “data mining” techniquesfocus mainly on search of information based on keyparameters (words, images, matrixes, algorithms), but in that way we will onlybe able to bring out ties/links that have already been exposed by someone else).According to the theory of information (Stanislav Yankovsky), requisitecondition of activity of intellectual (higher) system is the redundancy of incomingand generated information, read and think “to lay up in store/as a reserve”,accumulate “assets” which expands your possibilities and get rid of“liabilities” which reduce your potential. Any phenomenon should be analyzedfrom the view point of what it gives to you and what it takes from you. Eventwo most universal resources – money and information (sometimes “time” is addedthereto) – also limit to some extent the possibilities of their holder. A veryimportant point in the evaluation of information is reliability of the sourceof information and credibility of data itself. Specific code of markinginformation carriers is applied for this purpose. Reliability of source: A –absolutely reliable source; B – usually  reliable source; C – quite reliable source;D – not always reliable source; E – unreliable source; F — reliabilityof source cannot be defined. Credibility of data: 1– credibility of data is proven by data from other sources; 2 – data areprobably correct; 3 – data are possibly correct; 4 – doubtful data; 5 – dataare improbable; 6 – credibility ofdata cannot be established. It should be noted that many elements ofscientific, research and analytical activity are weakly formalizable, in which connectionpractical experience in the concrete field of activity gains great importance.
Issues recommendedfor independent study:the Game theory, the theory of fields, the theory of crises, the chaos theory,the theory of relativity, the management, strategy and tactics theories, basicsof logic and statistics – concepts, substance/essence, stereotypes, paradoxes.See also: Software “Archivarius 3000” www.likasoft.com — highlyeffective searcher in database on the basis of keywords.
Now,be prepared, it is going to be a little bit difficult.
Part 2. Basicsof general theory of systems (GTS) and systemic analysis
The world as awhole is a system which, in turn, consists of multitude of largeand small systems. In the classical theory ofsystems one can single out three various classes of objects: the primitivesystems, which structure is invariable (for example,the mathematical pendulum); analytical systems,which almost always have fixed structure, but sometimes undergobifurcations – spasmodic changes of structure(simple ecosystem); chaotic systems continually changing their structure (forexample, atmosphere of the Earth). Chaos is essentially an unstable structuralsystem. In this sense chaos is a synonym ofchangeable, internally inconsistent,unstable developing system whichcannot be referred to analytical structures.Having established the general principles of management in any systems, one cantry to determine how the system should be organized to work most effectively.This approach to research of problems of management from general to particular,from abstract to concrete is named organizational or systemic. Such approachprovides the possibility of studying of a considerable quantity of alternativevariants, the analysis of limitations and consequences of decisions made.“The system is a set of interacting elements”,said Berthalanfie, one of the founders of themodern General Theory of Systems (GTS) emphasizingthat the system is a structure in which elements somehowor other affect each other (interact).Is such definition sufficient to distinguish a system from non-system?Obviously, it is not, because in any structure its elements passively or activelysomehow interact with each other (press, push, attract/draw, induce, heat up, geton someone nerves, feel nervous, deceive, absorb, etc.). Any set of elementsalways operates somehow or other and it is impossible to find an object whichwould not make any actions. However, these actions can be accidental, purposeless,although accidentally and unpredictably, they can be conducive to theachievement of some goal. Though asign of action is the core, it determines not the concept of the system, butone of the essential conditionsof this concept. “The system is an isolated part, a fragment of the world, theUniverse, possessing a special property emergence/emergentfactor, relative self-sufficiency (thermodynamic isolation)”, said P. Etkins.But any object is apart or a Universe fragment,and each object differs from the others in some special property (emergence/emergentfactor – a property which is not characteristic of simple sum of all parts ofthe given system), including a place of its location, period of existence, etc.And at that, each object is to a certain degree thermodynamicallyindependent, although is dependent on its environment. Hence, this definitionalso defines notonly a system itself, but some consequences of systemic nature as well. Adequate/comprehensive/definition of the concept “system” is possibly, non-existent, because theconcept “goal/purpose” has been underestimated. Any properties of systems are ultimatelyconnected with the concept of goal/purpose because any system differs fromother systems in the constancy of its actions, and the aspiration to keep thisconstancy is a distinctive featureof any system. Nowadays the goal/purpose is treated as one of the elements ofbehavior and conscious activity of an individual which characterizes anticipation/visionof comprehension ofthe result of activity and the way of its realization by means of certain waysand methods. The purpose/goal acts as the way of integration of various actionsof an individual in some kind of sequence or system. So, the purpose is interpretedas purely human factor inherentonly in human being. There’s nothing for it but to apply the concept of “purpose/goal”not only to psychological activity of an individual, but to the concept of “system”,because the basic distinctive feature of any system is it designation for somepurpose/goal. Any system is always intended for something, is purposeful andserves some definite purpose/goal, and the goal is set not only before the individual,but before each system as well, regardlessof its complexity. Nevertheless, none of definitions of a system does practicallycontain the concept of purpose/goal, although it is the aim, but not the signsof action, emergence factor or something else, which is a system forming factor.There are no systems without goal/purpose, and to achieve this purpose thegroup of elements consolidates in a system and operates. Purposefulness isdefined by a question “What can this object do?” “The system is a complex of discretionaryinvolved elements jointly contributing to the achievement of the predetermined benefit,which is assumed to be the core system forming factor”. One can only facilitatethe achievement of specific goal, while the predetermined benefits can only be thegoal. The only thing to be clarified now is who or what determines the usefulnessof the result. In other words, who or whatsets the goal before the system? The entire theoryof systems is built on the basis of four axioms and four lawswhich are deduced from the axioms: axiom #1: a systemalways has one consistent/invariable general goal/purpose (the principle of systempurposefulness,predestination); axiom #2: the goal for the systems is set from the outside (theprinciple of goal setting for the systems); axiom #3: to achieve the goal thesystem should operate in a certain mode (the principle of  systems’ performance)– law #1: the law of conservation (the principle of consistency of systems’ performancefor the conservation of the consistency of goal/ purpose), law #2: the law ofcause-and-effect limitations (the principle of determinism of systems’performance), law #3: the law of hierarchies of goals/purposes (the principleof breakdown of goal/purpose into sub-goals/sub-purposes), law #4: the law of hierarchiesof systems (the principle of distribution of sub-goals/sub-purposes betweensubsystems and the principle of subordination of subsystems);  axiom №4: the resultof systems’ performance exists independently from the systems themselves (the principleof independence of the performance result). Axiom #1:the principle of purposefulness. At first it is necessary to determine what meaningwe attach to the concept “system”, as far as at first sight there are at leasttwo groups of objects”: “systems” and “non-systems”. In which case the object presentsa system? It is not likely that any object can be a system, although bothsystems and non-systems consist of a set of parts (components, elements, etc.).In some cases a heap of sand is a structure, but not a system, although it consistsof a set of elements representing heterogeneity of density in space (grains ofsand in conjunction with hollows). However, in other cases the same heap ofsand can be a system. So, what is the difference then between the structure-systemand the structure-non-system, since after all both do consist of elements? Allobjects can be divided into two big groups, if certain equal external influenceis exerted upon them: those with consistent retaliatory actions and those withvariable and unpredictable response action. Thus, if we change externalinfluence we then again will get the same two groups, but their structure willchange: other objects will now be characterized by the consistency of response actionsunder the influence of new factors, while those previously characterized bysuch constancy under the former influencing factors will have no suchcharacteristics under the influence of new factors any more. Let us call thesystems those objects consisting of a set of elements and characterized by theconstancy/consistency of actions in response to certain external influences. Thosenot characterized by the constancy of response actions under the sameinfluences may be called casual sets of elements with respect tothese influences. Hence, the concept of “system” isrelative depending on how the given group of elements reacts to the givencertain external influence. The constancyand similarityof reaction ofthe interacting group of elements in respect of certain external influence isthe criterion of system. The constancy of actions in response to certainexternal influence is the goal/purpose of the given system. Hence, the goal/purposestipulates direction of the system’s performance. Any systems differ in constancyof performance/actions and differ from each other in purposefulness (predestinationfor something concrete). There is no system “in general”, but there are alwaysconcrete systems intended for some specific goals/purposes. Any object of our Worlddiffers from another only in purpose, predetermination for something. Differentsystems have different goals/purposes and they determinedistinction between the systems. Hence, the oppositeconclusion may be drawn: if there any system exists, it means it has a goal/purpose.We do not always understand the goals/purposes of either systems, but they (goals/purposes)are always present in any systems. We cannot tell, for example, what for is theatom of hydrogen needed, but we can not deny that it is necessary for the creationof polymeric organic chains or, for example, for the formation of a molecule ofwater. Anyway, if we need to construct a water molecule, we need to take, besidesthe atom of oxygen, two atoms of hydrogen instead of carbon or any otherelement. The system may be such group of elements only in which the result oftheir general interaction differs from the results of separate actions of eachof these elements. The result may differ both qualitatively and quantitatively.The mass of the heap of sand is more than the mass of a separate grain of sand(quantitative difference). The room which walls are built of bricks has aproperty to limit space volume which is not the case with separate bricks(qualitative difference). Any system is always predeterminedfor some purpose, but it always has one and the same purpose. Haemoglobin as a systemis always intended for the transfer of oxygen only, a car is intended fortransportation and the juice extractor for squeezing of juice from fruit. Onecan use the juice extractor made of iron to hammer in a nail, but it is not thejuice extractor system’s purpose. This constancy of purpose obliges any systemsto always operate to achieve one and the same goal predetermined for them.
The principle ofgoal-setting. A car is intended for transportation, a calculator – forcalculations,a lantern – for illumination, etc. But the goal of transportation is needed notfor the car but for someone or something external with respect to it. The caronly needs its ability to implement the function in order to achieve this goal.The goal is to meet the need of something external in something, and thissystem only implements the goal while serving this external “something”. Hence,the goal for a system is set from the outside, and the only thing required fromthe system is the ability to implement this goal. This external “something” is anothersystem or systems, because the World is tamped only with systems. Goal-settingalways excludes independent choice of the goal by the system. The goal can beset to the system as the order/command and directive. There is a differencebetween these concepts. The order/command is a rigid instruction, it requires executionof just “IT” withthe preset accuracyand only “IN THAT MANNER” and not in any other way, i.e. the system is notgiven the “right” to choose actions for the achievement of the goal and all itsactions are strictly defined. Directive is a milder concept, whereby the “IT”is set only the given or approximate accuracy, but the right to choose actionsis given to the system itself. Directive can be set only to systems with well developedmanagement unit/control block which can make choice of necessaryactions by itself. None of the systems does possess freewill and can setthe goal before itself; it comes to it from the outside. But are there anysystems which are self-sufficient and set the goals before themselves? Forexample, we, the people, are sort of able of setting goals before ourselves andcarry them out. Well then, are we the example ofindependent systems? But it is not as simple as itmay seem. There is a dualism (dual nature) of one and the same concept of goal:the goal as the task for some system and the goal as an aspiration (desire) ofthis system toexecute the goal set before it: the Goal is a task representing the need ofexternal operating system (super system) to achieve certain predeterminedresult; the Goal is an aspiration (desire) to achieve certain result of performanceof the given system always equalto the preset result (preset by order or directive). The fundamental point isthat one super system cannot set the goal before the system (subsystem) ofother super system. It can set the goal only before this super system whichbecomes a subsystem in respect of the latter. We can set the goal beforeourselves, but we always set the goal only when we are missing/lackingsomething, when we suffer. Suffering is an unachieved desire. Any physiological(hunger, thirst), aesthetic and other unachieved desires makes us suffer andsuffering forces us to aspire to act until desires are satisfied. The depth ofsuffering is always equal to the intensity of desire. We want to eat and wesuffer from hunger until we satisfy this desire. As soon as we take some food,the suffering ceases immediately. At that, the new desire arises according to“Maslow pyramid”. Desire is our goal-aspiration. When we realize our wish weachieve the objective/goal. If we achieve the objective we cease to act,because the goal is achieved and the wish disappears. If we have everything wecan only think of, we will not set any goals before ourselves, because there isnothing to wish, since we have everything. Therefore, even a human being withall its complexity and developmental evolution cannot be absolutely independentof other systems (of external environment). Our goals-tasks are always setbefore us by the external environment and it incites our desire (goal-aspiration)which is dictated by shortage of something. We are free to choose our actions toachieve the goal, but it is at this point where we are limited by ourpossibilities. We do not set the goal-task,we set the goals-aspirations. Then if it is not us, can there be other systemswhich can set goals before themselves regardless of whatsoever? Perhaps, startingfrom any certain level of complication the systemscan do it themselves? Such examples are unknown tous. For any however large and difficult system there might be another, evenhigher system found which will dictate theformer its goals and conditions. Nature is integrated and almost put in (good)order. It is “almost”put in order, because at the level of quantum phenomena there is probably someuncertainty and unpredictability, i.e. unconformity of the phenomena to ourknowledge of physical laws (for example, tunnel effects). It is thisunpredictability which is the cause of contingencies and unpredictability. Contingency/stochasticity and purposefulness are mutually exclusive.
Principle ofperformance of action. Any system is intended for any well defined and concretegoal specific for it, and for this purpose it performs only specific (target-oriented)actions. Hence, the goal of a system is the aspiration to perform certainpurposeful actions for the achievement of target-oriented(appropriate) result of action. The plane is designedfor air transportation, but cannot float; for this purpose there is anamphibian aircraft. The result of aircraft performance is moving by air. Thisresult of action is expectable and predictable. The constancy and predictabilityof functional performance is a distinctive feature of any systems – living,natural, social, financial, technical, etc. Consequently, in orderto achieve the goal any object of our World should function,make any purposeful actions,operations (in this case the purposeful, deliberate inaction is in some sense anaction, too). Action is manifestation of some energy, activity, as well asforce itself, the functioning of something;condition, process arising in response to some influence, stimulant/irritant,impression (for example, reaction in psychology, chemical reactions, nuclearreactions). The object’s action is followed by the result of action (not alwaysexpected, but always logical and conditioned). The purpose of any system is theaspiration to yield appropriate (targeted) result of action. At that, the givenobject is the donor of the result of action. The result of action of donorsystem can be directed towards any other system which in this case will be therecipient (target) for the result of action. In this case the result of actionof the donor system becomes the external influence for the recipient system.Interaction between the systems is carried out only through the results ofaction. In that way the chain of actions is built as follows:… →(external influence) → result of action(external influence) →… The system producessingle result of action for single external influence. No object operates initself. It cannot decide on its own “Here now I will start to operate” becauseit has no freedom of will and it cannot set the goal before itself and producethe result of action on its own. It can only react (act) in response to certainexternal influence. Any actions of any objects are always their reaction tosomething. Any influence causes response/reaction. Lack of influence causes noreaction. Reaction can sometimes be delayed, therefore it may seem causeless. Butif one digs and delves, it is always possible to find the cause, i.e. externalinfluence. Cognition of the world only falls to our lot through the reactionsof its elements. Reaction (from Latin “re”– return and “actio” — action) is an action,condition, process arising in response to some influence, irritant/stimulant,impression (for example, reaction in psychology, chemical reactions, nuclearreactions). Consequently, the system’s action in response to the externalinfluence is the reaction of the system. When the system has worked (responded)and the required result of action has been received, it means that it hasalready achieved (“quenched”) thegoal and after that it has no any more goal to aspire to. Reaction is alwayssecondary and occurs only and only following the external influence exerted uponthe element. Reaction can sometimes occur after a long time following theexternal influence if, for example, the given element has been specially “programmed”for the delay. But it will surely occur, provided that the force of the externalinfluence exceeds the threshold of the element’s sensitivity to the externalinfluence and that the element is capable to respond to the given influence ingeneral. If theelement is able of reacting to pressure above 1 atmosphere it will necessarily reactif the pressure is in excess of 1 atmosphere. If the pressure is less than 1atmosphere it will not react to the lower pressure. If it is influenced bytemperature, humidity or electric induction, it will also not react, howsoeverwe try to “persuade” it, as it is only capable to react to pressure higher than1 atmosphere. In no pressure case (no pressure above 1 atmosphere), itwill never react. Since the result of the system’sperformance appears only following some external influence, it is alwayssecondary, because the external influence is primary. External influence is thecause and the result of action is a consequence (function). It is obvious that donorsystems can produce one or several results of action, while the recipientsystems may only react to one or several external influences. But donorelements can interact with the recipient systems only in case of qualitatively homogeneousactions. If the recipient systems can react only to pressure, then the systemsable of interacting with them may be those which result of action is pressure, butnot temperature, electric current or something else. Interaction between donor systemsand recipient systems is only possible in case of qualitative uniformity (homoreactivity,the principle ofhomogeneous interactivity). We can listen to the performance of the musician ona stage first of all because we have ears. The earthworm is not able tounderstand our delight from the performance of the musician at least for thereason that it has no ears, it cannot perceive a sound and it has no idea abouta sound even if (hypothetically) it could have an intelligence equal to ours.The result of action of the recipient element can be both homogeneous (homoreactive)and non-homogeneous, unequal in terms of quality of action (heteroreactive) ofexternal influence in respect of it. For example, the element reacts topressure, and its result of action can be either pressure or temperature, orfrequency, or a stream/flow of something, or the number of inhabitants of theforest (apartment, city, country) etc. Hence, the reaction of an element to theexternal influence can be both homoreactive and heteroreactive. In the firstcase the elements are the action transmitters, in the second case they are convertersof quality of action. If the result of the system’s actions completely correspondsto the implementation of goal, it speaks of the sufficiency of this system (thegiven group of interacting elements) for the given purpose. If not, the givengroup of elements mismatches the given goal/purpose and/or is insufficient, oris not the proper system for the achievement of a degree of quality andquantity of the preset goal. Therefore, any existing object can be characterizedby answering the basic question: “What can the given object do?” This questioncharacterizes the concept of the “result of action of an object” which in turnconsists of two subquestions: What action can be done by given object? (the qualityof result of action); How much of such action can be done by the given object?(the quantity of result of action). These two subquestions characterize theaspiration of a system to implement the goal. And the goal-setting may becharacterized by answering another question: “What should the given object do?”which also consists of two subquestions: what action should the given object do?(the quality of the result of action); how much of such action should the givenobject do? (the quantity of the result of action). These last two subquestions arethe ones that determine thegoal as a task (the order/command, the instruction) for the given object orgroup of objects, and the system is being sought or built to achieve this goal.The closer the correspondence between what should and what can be done by thegiven object, the closer the given object is to the ideal system. The realresult of action of the system should correspond to preset (expected) result.This correspondence is the basic characteristic of any system. Wide variety ofsystems may be built of a very limited number of elements. All the diversematerial physical universe is built of various combinations of protons, electronsand neutrons and these combinations are the systems with specific goals/purposes.We do not know the taste of protons, neutrons and electrons, but we do know thetaste of sugar which molecular atoms are composed of these elements.Same elements are the constructional material ofboth the human being and a stone. The result of the action of pendulum would bejust swaying, but not secretion of hormones, transmission of impulse, etc.Hence, its goal/purpose and result of action is nothing more but only swaying atconstant frequency. The symphonic orchestra can only play pieces of music, butnot build, fight or merchandize, etc. Generator of random numbers shouldgenerate only random numbers. If all of a sudden it starts generate series ofinterdependent numbers, it will cease to bethe generator of random numbers. Real and idealsystems differ from each other in that the former always have additionalproperties determined by the imperfection of real systems. Massive golden royalseal, for example, may be used to crack nuts just as well as by means of ahammer or a plain stone, but it is intended for other purpose. Therefore, as ithas already been noted above, the concept of “system” is relative, but notabsolute, depending on correspondence between what should and what can be doneby the given object. If the object can implement the goal set before it, it isthe system intended for the achievement of this goal. If it cannot do so, it isnot the system for the given goal, but can be a system intended for other goals.It does not mater for the achievement of the goal what the system consists of, butwhat is important is what it can do. In any case the possibility to implementthe goal determines the system. Therefore, the system is determined not by the structureof its elements, but by the extent of precision/accuracy of implementation of theexpected result. What is important is the result of action, rather than the wayit was achieved. Absolutely different elements may be used to build the systemsfor the solution of identical problems (goals). The sum of US$200in the form of US$1 value coins each and the checkfor the same amount can perform the same action (may be used to make the samepurchase), although they consist of different elements. In one case it is metaldisks with the engraved signs, while in other case it is a piece of a paperwith the text drawn on it. Hence, they are systems named “money” with identicalpurposes, provided that they may be used for purchase and sale without takinginto account, for example, conveniences of carrying them overor a guarantee against theft. But the moreconditions are stipulated, the less number of elements are suitable for theachievement of the goal. If we, for example, need large amount of money, say, US$1.000.000in cash, andwant it not to be bulky and the guarantee that it is not counterfeit we will onlyaccept US$100 bank notes receivedonly from bank. The more the goal is specified, the less is the choice ofelements suitable for it. Thus, the system is determined by the correspondence ofthe goal set to the result of its action. The goal is both the task for an object(what it should make) and its aspiration or desire (what it aspires to). If thegiven group of elements can realize this goal, it is a system for the achievementof the goal set. If it cannot realize this goal, it is not the system intended forthe achievement of the given goal, although it can be the system for the achievementof other goals. The system operates for the achievement of the goal. Actually, thesystem transforms through its actions the goal into the result of action, thus spendingits energy. Look around and everything you’ll see are someone’s materialized goalsand realized desires. On a large scale everything that populates our World issystems and just systems, and all of them are intended for a wide range ofvarious purposes. But we do not always know the purposes of many of thesesystems and therefore not all objects areperceived by us as systems. Reactions of systems to similar external influencesare always constant, because the goal is always determined and constant.Therefore, the result of action should always be determined, i.e. identical andconstant (a principle of consistency of correspondence of the system’s action resultto the appropriate result), and for this purpose the system’s actions should bethe same (the principle of a constancy of correspondence of actual actions of thesystem to the due ones). If the result fails to be constant it cannot be appropriateand equal to the preset result (the principle of consistency/permanency of the resultof action). Theconservation law proceeds/results/ fromthe principle of consistency/permanency of action. Let us call the permanencyof reaction “purposefulness”, as maintaining the similarity (permanency/consistency)of reaction is the goal of a system. Hence, the law of conservation is determinedby the goal/purpose. The things conserved would be those only, which correspondto the achievement of the system’s goal. This includes both actions per se and thesequence of actions and elements needed to perform these actions, and theenergy spent for the performance of these actions, because the system wouldseek to maintain its movement towards the goal and this movement will bepurposeful. Therefore, the purpose determines the conservation law and the lawof cause-and-effect limitations (seebelow), rather than other way round. The conservation law isone of the organic, if not the most fundamental,laws of our universe. One of particular consequences of the conservation law isthat the substance never emerges from nothing and does not transform into nothing(the law of conservation of matter). It always exists. It might have beennon-existent before origination of the World, if there was origination of theWorld per se, and it might not be existent after its end, if it is to end, butin our World it doesneither emerge, nor disappear. A matter is substance and energy. The substance(deriving from the /Rus/ word “thing”, “object” ) mayexist in various combinations of its forms (liquid, solid, gaseous and other, aswell as various bodies), including the living forms. But matter is always somekind of objects, from elementary particles to galaxies,including living objects.Substance consists of elements. Some forms ofsubstances may turn into others (chemical, nuclear and other structuraltransformations) at the expense of regrouping of elements bychange of ties between them. Physical form of the conservationlaw is represented by Einstein’s formula. A substance may turn into energy and otherway round. Energy (from Greek “energeia” — action, activity) is the generalquantitative measure of movement and interaction of all kinds of matter. Energyin nature does not arise from anything and does not disappear; it only can changeits one form into another. The concept of energy brings all natural phenomenatogether. Interaction between the systems or between the elements of systems isin effect the link between them. From the standpoint of system, energy is themeasure (quantity) of interaction between the elements of the system or betweenthe systems which needs to be accomplished for the establishment of linkbetween them. For example, one watt may be material measure of energy. Measuresof energy in other systems, such as social, biological, mentaland other, are not yet developed. Any objects representthe systems, therefore interactions between them are interactions between the systems.But systems are formed at the expense of interaction between their elements andformations of inter-element relations between them. In the process of interactionbetween the systems intersystem relations are established. Any action,including interaction, needs energy. Therefore, when establishingrelations/links/ the energy is being “input”. Consequently, as interactionbetween the elements of the system or different systems is the relation/link betweenthem, the latter is the energy-related concept. In other words, when creating asystem from elements and its restructuring from simple into complex, the energyis spent for the establishment of new relations /links /connections between theelements. When the system is destructed the links between the elements collapseand energy is released. Systems are conserved at the expense of energy of relations/linksbetween its elements. It is the internal energy of a system. When theserelations/links are destructed the energy is released, but the system itself asan object disappears. Consequently, the internal energy of a system is theenergy of relations/link between the elements of the system. In endothermic reactionsthe energy used for the establishment of connections/links/relations comes to thesystem from the outside. In exothermic reactions internal energy of the system isreleased at the expense of  rupture of these connections between its internalown elements which already existed prior to the moment when reaction occurred.But when the connection is already formed, by virtue of conservation law itsenergy is not changed any more, if no influence is exerted upon the system. Forexample, in establishing of connections/links between the two nuclei of deuterium(2D2) the nucleus 1Не4 is formed and the energy is released (for the purpose ofsimplicity details are omitted, for example, reaction proton-proton). And the1Не4 nucleus mass becomes slightly less than the sum of masses of two deuteriumnuclei by the value multiple of the energy released, in accordance with thephysical expression of the conservation law. Thus, in process of merge of deuteriumnuclei part of their intra-nuclear bonds collapses and it is for this reasonthat the merge of these nuclei becomes possible. The energy of connectionbetween the elements of deuterium nuclei is much stronger than that of the bondbetween the two deuterium nuclei. Therefore, when part of connections betweenelements of deuterium nuclei is destructed the energy is released, part of it beingused for thermonuclear synthesis, i.e. the establishment of connection/bond betweenthe two deuterium nuclei (extra-nuclear connection/bond in respect to deuteriumnuclei), while other part is released outside helium nucleus. But our World is tampednot only with matter. Other objects, including social, spiritual, cultural,biological, medical and others, are real as well. Their reality is manifestedin that they can actively influence both each other and other kinds of matter(through the performance of other systems and human beings). And they alsoexist and perform not chaotically, but are subjected to specific, though strictlaws of existence. The law of conservation applies to them as well, becausethey possess their own kinds of “energy” and they did not come into being in aday, but may only turn one into another. Any system can be described in termsof qualitative and quantitative characteristics. Unlike material objects, thebehavior ofother objects can be described nowadays only qualitatively, as they for thepresent the have no their own “thermodynamics”, for example, “psychodynamics”.We do not know, for example, what quantity of “Watt” of spiritual energy needsto be applied to solve difficult psychological problem, but we know thatspiritual energy is needed for such a solution. Nevertheless, these objects arethe full-value systems as well, and they are structured based on the sameprinciples as other material systems. As systems are the groups of elements,and changes of forms of substances represent the change of connections/bondsbetween the elements of substance, then changes of forms of substances representthe changes of forms of systems. Hence, the form is determined by the specificityof connections/bonds/ties between the elements of systems. “Nothing in thisworld lasts for ever”, the world is continually changing, whereby one kind offorms of matter turn into other, but it is only forms that vary, while matter isindestructible and always conserved. At the same time, alteration of forms is alsosubjected to the law of conservation and it is this law that determines the wayin which one kind of forms should replace other forms of matter. Forms onlyalter on account of change of connections/ties between the elements of systems.As far as each connection between the system elements has energetic equivalent,any system contains internal energy which is the sum of energies ofconnections/bonds between all elements. The “form: (Latin, philos.) is atotality of relations determining the object. The form is contraposed to matter,the content of an object. According to Aristotle, the form is the actuatingforce that forms the objects and exists beyond the latter. According to Kant,form is everything brought in by the subject of cognition to the content of thecognizable matter — space, time and substance of the form of cognitive ability;all categories of thinking: quantity, quality, relation, substance, place,time, etc., are forms, the product of ability of abstraction, formation of generalconcepts of our intellect. However, these are not quite correct definitions.The form cannot be contraposed to matter because it is inseparably linked with thelatter, it is the form of matter itself. The form cannot be a force either, althoughit probably pertains to energy because it is determined by energy-bearing connectionswithin the system. According to Kant, form is a purely subjective concept, as itonly correlates with intellectual systems and their cognitive abilities. Why,do not the forms exist without knowing them? Any system has one or other shape/lookof form. And the system’s form is determined by type and nature of connections/relations/bondsbetween the system elements. Therefore, the form is a kind of connectionsbetween the system elements. Since the systems may interact, new connections/bondsbetween them are thus established and new forms of systems emerge. In otherwords, in process of interaction between the systems new systems emerge as newforms. The energy is always expended in the course of interaction between the systems.Logic form of the conservation law is the law of cause-and-effect limitations becauseit is corresponded by a logical connective “if....., then….” Possible choice ofexternal influences (causes) to which the system should react is limited by thefirst part of this connective “if...”, whereas the actions of systems(consequences) are limited by the second part “then...”. It is for this reasonthat the law is called the law of cause-and-effect limitations. This law reads“Any consequence has its cause /every why has awherefore/”. Nothing appears without the reason/cause and nothing disappearsfor no special reason/cause. There are no consequences without the reason/cause,there is no reaction without the influence. It is unambiguousness and certaintyof reaction of systems to the external influence that lays the cornerstone of determinismin nature. Every specific cause is followed by specific consequence. The systemshould always react only to certain external influences and always react only ina certain way. Chemoreceptor intended for О2would always react only to О2,but not to Na +,Ca ++ or glucose. At that,it will give out certain potential of action, rather than a portion of hormone,mechanical contraction or something else. Any system differs in specificity ofthe external influence and specificity of the reaction. The certainty ofexternal influences and the reactions to them imposes limitations on the typesof the latter. Therefore, the need in the following arisesfrom the law of cause-and-effect limitations: executionof any specific (certain) action to achieve specific(certain) purpose; existence of any specific (certain) system (subsystem) for theimplementation of such action, as no action occursby itself; sequences of actions: the system wouldalways start to perform and produce the result of action only after externalinfluence is exerted on it because it does not have free will for making decisionon the implementation of the action. Hence, the result of the system performancecan always appear only after certain actions are done by the system. Theseactions can only be done following the external influence. External influence isprimary and the result of action is secondary. Of all possible actions thosewill be implemented only which are caused by external influence and limited (stipulated)by the possibilities of the responding system. If, following the formerexternal influence, the goal is already achieved and there is no new externalinfluence after delivery of the result of action, the system should be in astate of absolute rest and not operate, because it is only the goal that makesthe system operate, and this goal is already achieved. No purpose — no actions.If new external influence arises a new goal appears as well, and then thesystem will start again to operate and newresult of action will be produced.
Major characteristicsof systems. To carry out purposeful actions the system should have appropriateelements. It is a consequence of the laws of conservation and cause-and-effect limitationssince nothing occurs by itself. Therefore, any systems are multi-componentobjects and their structure is not casual. The structure of systems in manyrespects determines their possibilities to perform certain actions. Forexample, the system made of bricks can be a house, but cannot be a computer.But it is not the structure only that determines the possibilities of systems. Strictlydetermined specific interaction between them determined by their mutualrelation is required. Two hands can make what is impossible to make by one handor “solitary” hands, if one can put it in that way. The hand of a monkey hassame five fingers as a hand of a human being does. But the hand of a humanbeing coupled with its intellect hastransformed the world on the Earth. Two essential signs thereby determine thequality and quantity of results of action of any systems – the structure ofelements and their relations. Any object has only two basic characteristics: whatand how much work/many things/ it can do. New quality can only be present inthe group of elements interacting in a specific defined mode/manner. “Defined” meanstarget-oriented. “Interacting in a defined mode/manner” means having definite goal,being constructed and operating in a definite mode/manner for the achievementof the given goal. Defined mode/manner cannot be found/inherent in separate givenelements and randomly interacting elements. As a result of certain interactionof elements part of their properties would be neutralized and other part usedfor the achievement of the goal. Transformation of one set of forms of a matterinto others occurs for the account of neutralization of some properties ofthese forms of a matter. And neutralization occurs for the account of change ofsome connections/bonds between the elements of an object, as these connections/bondsdetermine the form of an object. For this reason we say “would be neutralized”rather than “destroyed”, because nothing in this world does disappear andappear (the conservation law). The whole world consists of protons, neutronsand electrons, but we see various objects which differ in color, consistence,taste, form, molecular and atomic composition, etc. It means that in the courseof specific interaction of protons, neutrons and electrons certain inter-elementaryconnections are established. At that, some of their properties would beneutralized, while others conserved or even amplified in such a manner that thewhole of diversity of our world stems from it. The goal of any system is thefulfillment of the preset (defined) condition, achievement of the preset resultof action (goal/objective). If the preset result of action came out incidentally,then the next moment it might not be achieved and the designated/preset resultwould disappear. But if for some reason there is a need in the result of actionbeing always exactly identical to this one and not to any other (goal-setting),it is necessary that the group of interactingelements retain this new result of action. To thisend the given group of elements should continually seek to retain the designated/presetcondition (implementation of goal/objective).
Simple systemicfunctional unit (SFU). The system may consist of any quantity of functionalelements/executive component, provided that each of the latter can participate(contribute to) the achievement of the goal/objective and the quantity of suchcomponents is sufficient enough for realizationof this goal.The minimal system is such group of “k” elementswhich, in case of removal of at least one of the elements from its structure,loses the quality inherent in this group of elements, but not present in any ofthe given “k” elements. Such group of elements is a simple systemic functionalunit (simple, not composite SFU), the minimal elementary system having some property(ability to make action) which is not present in any ofits separate elements. Any SFU reacts to externalinfluence under the “all-or-none” law. This law is resulting from the definitionof simple SFU (removal of any of its elements would terminate its function as asystem) and discrecity of its structure. Any of its elements may either be ornot be a part of simple SFU. And since simple SFU by definition consists of finiteand minimal set of function elements and all of them should be within the SFU structureand be functional (operational), termination of functioning of any of theseelements would terminate the function of the entire SFU as a system. Regardlessof the force of external influence, but given the condition of its being inexcess of a certain threshold, the result of its performance will be maximal, (“all”). If there is no external influence, the SFU would nowise prove out (wouldnot react, “none”). Simple SFU, despite its name, may be arbitrary complex –from elementary minimal SFU to maximal complex ones. The molecule of anysubstance consists of several atoms. Removal of any atom transforms thismolecule from one substance into another. And even each atom represents a very complexconstitution. Removal of any of its elements transforms it into an ion, otheratom or other isotope. A soldier is a simple SFU of the system called “the army”.A soldier is a human being’s body plus full soldier’s outfit. The body of ahuman being is an extremely complex object, but removal of any of its parts wouldrender the soldier invalid. At that, the soldier’s outfit/equipment is multi-componentas well. But the equipment cannot shoot without man and the man cannot shootwithout the equipment. They can only carry out together the functions inherentin SFU named “soldier”. Despite the internalcomplexity which may be however big, simple SFU is a separate element whichlooks as a whole unit with certain single property (quality) to fulfill one certainaction elementary in relation to the entire system, i.e. to grasp a ball, molecule,push a portion ofblood, produce force/load of 0.03 grams, provide living conditions for the animal(for example, one specific unit of forest area) or to an individual (apartment),fire a shot, etc. Any SFU, once it is divided into parts, ceases to be an SFU forthe designated goal. It is due to interaction of the parts only that the groupof elements can show its worth as SFU. When something breaks a good owner wouldalways think at first where in his household the fragments may be applied andonly thereafter he would throw them out, because one broken thing (one SFU) canbe transformed into another,more simple one (another SFU). Haemoglobin is an element of blood circulation systemand serves for capturing and subsequent return of oxygen. Hence, haemoglobinmolecules are the SFU of erythrocytes.  Ligands of haemoglobin molecules are theSFU of haemoglobin, as each of them can serve a trap for oxygen molecules. However,further division of ligand brings to a stop the functionof retention of oxygen molecules, etc. The SFU analoguesin an inorganic nature/abiocoen are, for example, all material particles possessingability to lose their properties when dividing – elementary particles (?), atoms,molecules, etc. Viruses may probably be the systemic functional units of heredity(FUH). Thus, it is likely that at first polymeric molecules of DNA type cameinto being in the claypan strata or even in the interplanetary dust or oncomets, based on a type of auto-catalytic Butler’s reaction, i.e. synthesis ofvarious sugars including ribose from formaldehyde in the presence of Ca and Mg ions,ribose being a basis for the creation of RNA and DNA, and thereafter cellularstructures emerged. These examples of various concrete SFU show that SFU is notsomething indivisible, since each of them is multicomponent and therefore canbe divided into parts. Only intra-atomic elementary particles may pretend to betrue SFU that are the basis of the whole of matter of our entire world as it isstill impossible to split them into parts. It is for this reason that they are calledelementary. It may well be that they are of a very complex structure, too, but formednot from the elements of physical nature, but of some different matter, and arethe result of action of performance of systems of non-physical nature, orrather not of the forms of the World of ours. It is indicative of the existenceof binate virtual particles, for example, positron and electron, emerging ostensiblyfrom emptiness, vacuum and disappearing thereto after all. We cannot cut paperwith scissors made of the same paper material. It’s unlikely that we can “cut”elementary particles with the “scissors” made of the same matter either.
Elementary blockof management (direct positive connection/bond, DPC). In order for any SFU tobe able to perform it should contain certain elements for implementation of itsactions according to the laws of conservation and cause-and-effect limitations.To implement target-oriented actions the system should contain performance/“executive”/ elements and in order to render the executive element’sinteraction target-oriented, the system should contain the elements (block) ofmanagement/control. Executive elements (effectors) carry out certain (target-oriented)action of a system to ensure the achievement of the preset result of action. Theresult of action would not come out by itself. In order to achieve itperformance of certain objects is required. On the example of plain with afeeler /trial balloon/ such elements are plains themselves. But it (the executiveelement) exists on itself and produces its own results of action in response tocertain influences external with respect to it. It will react if something influencesupon it and will not react in the absence of any influence. Interaction withits other elements would pertain to it so far as the results of action of otherelements are the external influence in respect of it per se and may invoke itsreaction in response to these influences. This reaction will already be shownin the form of its own result of action which would also be the externalinfluence in respect to other elements of the system, and no more than that.  Nota single action of any element of the system can be the result of action of thesystem itself by definition. It does not matter for any separate executiveelement whether or not the preset condition (the goal of the system) was fulfilledhaphazardly, whether or not the given group of elements produced aqualitatively new preset result of action or something prevented it fromhappening. It in no way affects the way the executive elements “feel”, i.e. theirown functions, and none of their inherent property would force them to “watch”the fulfillment of the general goal of the system. They are simply “not able” ofdoing so. The elements of management (the control block) are needed for theachievement of the particular preset result, rather than of any other result ofaction. Since the goal is the reaction in response to specific externalinfluence, at first there is a need to “feel” it, to segregate it from themultitude of other nonspecific external influences, “make decision” on anyspecific actions and begin to perform. If, for example, the SFU reacts topressure it should be able to “feel” just pressure (reception), rather thantemperature or something else. For this purpose it should have a special “organ”(receptor) which is able of doing so. In order to react only to specificexternal influence which may pertain to the fulfillment of the goal, the SFUshould not only have reception, but also single it out from all other externalinfluences affecting it (selection). For this purpose it should have a special organ(selector or analyzer) which is able to segregate the right signal from amultitude of others. Thereafter, having “felt” and segregated the externalinfluence, it should “make decision” that there is a need to act(decision-making). For this purpose it should have a special or decision-makingorgan able of making decisions. Then it should realize this decision, i.e. forcethe executive elements to act (implementation of decision). For this purpose itshould have elements (stimulators) with the help of which it would be possibleto communicate decision to the executive elements. Therefore, in order to reactto certain external influence and to achieve the required result of actionit is necessary to accomplish the following chain ofguiding actions:reception → selection → decision-making → implementation ofdecisions (stimulation). What elements should carry out this chain of guidingactions? The executive elements (for example, plains) cannot do it, because theyperform the action per se, for example, the capturing action, but not guiding actions.For this reason they are also called executiveelements. All guiding actions should be accomplished by guiding elements (the controlblock) and these shouldbe a part of SFU. The control block consistsof: “X” receptor (segregates specific signal and detects the presence ofexternal influence); afferent channels (transfer of information from the receptorto analyzer); the analyzer-informant (on the basis of the information from the “Х”receptor makes decisions on the activation of executive elements); efferentcannels (of a stimulator) (implementation of decision, channeling of the guidingactions to the effectors).
The “Х” receptor,afferent channels, analyzer-informant (activator of action) and efferent channels(stimulator) comprise the control block. The receptor and afferent channels representdirect positive communication (DPC). It is direct because inside SFU the guidingsignal (information on the presence of external influence) goes in the samedirection as the external influence itself. It is positive because if there isa signal there is a reaction,if there is no signal, there is no reaction. Thus, the SFU control block reactsto the external influence. It can feel and detect/segregate specific signal ofexternal influence from the multitude of other external influences anddepending on the presence or absence of specific signal it may decide whetheror not it should undertake its own action. Its own action is the inducement(stimulation) of the executive elements to operate. There exist uncontrollableand controllable SFU. The control block of uncontrollable SFU decides whetheror not it should act, and it would make such decision only depending on the presenceof the external influence. The control block of controllable SFU would alsodecide whether or not it should act depending on the presence of the externalsignal and in the presence of additional condition as well, i.e. the permissionto perform this action which is communicated to its command entry point.The uncontrollable SFU has one entry point for the external influence and one outlet/exit point/ for the result of action. The logic of work of such SFU isextremely simple: it would act if there is certain external influence (resultof action), and no result of action is produced in the absence of externalinfluence. For uncontrollable SFU the action regulator is the externalinfluence itself. It has its own management which function is performed by theinternal control block. But external management with such SFU is impossible. Itwould “decide” on its own whether or not it should act. That is why it iscalled uncontrollable. This decision would only depend on the presence ofexternal influence. In the presence of external influence it would function andno external decision (not the influence) can change the internal decision ofthis SFU. The uncontrollable SFU is independent of external decisions. It willperform the action once it “made a decision”. The example of uncontrollable SFUis, for instance, the nitroglycerine molecule (SFU for micro-explosion). If it isshaken (external influence is shaking) it will start to disintegrate, thereby releasingenergy, and during this process nothing would stop its disintegration. The analoguesof uncontrollable SFU in a living organism are sarcomeres, ligands ofhaemoglobin, etc. Once sarcomere starts to reduce, it would not stop until thereduction is finished. Once the ligand of haemoglobin starts capturing oxygen,it would not stop until the capturing process is finished. Unlikeuncontrollable SFU, the controllable SFU have two entry points (one for theentry of external influence and another one for the entry of the command to theanalyzer) and one outlet/exit point/ for the result of action. The logic ofwork of controllable SFU is slightly different from that of the uncontrollable SFU.Such SFU will produce the result of action not only depending on the presenceof the external influence, but the presence of permission at the command entrypoint. Implementation of action will start in the presence of certain external influenceand permission at the command entry point. The action would not be performed inthe presence of the external influence and the absence of permission at thecommand entry point. For the controllable SFU the action regulator is thepermission at the command entry point. That is why suchSFU are called controllable. The analogues of controllableSFU in a living organism are, for example, pulmonary functional ventilationunits (FVU) or functional perfusion units (FPU), histic functional perfusionunits (FPU), secretion functional units (cells of various secretion glands, SFU),kidney nephrons, liver acinuses, etc. The control block’s elements are built of(assembled from) other ordinary elements suitable in terms of theircharacteristics. It can be built both of executive elements combined in acertain manner and simultaneously performing the function of both execution andmanagement, and from other executive elements not belonging to the given groupand segregated in a separate chain of management. In the latter case they maybe precisely the same as executive elements, but may be made of other elementsas well. For example, muscular contraction functional units consist of muscularcells, but are managed by nervous centers consisting of nerve cells. At thesame time, all kinds of cells, both nerve and muscular, are built of almostidentical building materials – proteins, fats, carbohydratesand minerals. The difference between thecontrollable and uncontrollable FSU is only in the availability of commandentry point. It is it that determines the change of the algorithm of its work. Performanceof the controllable SFU depends not only on the external influence, but on theM disabling at the command entry point. The control block is very simple, if itcontains only DPC (the “Х” receptor and afferent channels), theanalyzer-informant anda stimulator. SFU are primary cells, executive elements of any systems. As we cansee, despite their elementary character, they represent a fairly complex andmulti-component object. Each of them contains not less than two types of elements(management/control and executive) and each type includes more and more, butthese elements are mandatory attributesof any SFU. The SFU complexity is the complexity of hierarchy of theirelements. There is no any special difference between the executive elements andthe elements of management/control.  Ultimately all in this world consists of electrons,protons and neutrons. The difference between them lies only in their positionin the hierarchy of systems, i.e. in their positional relationship. Thecomposite SFU contains 4 simple SFU. In the absence of the external influenceall simple SFU are inactive and no resultof action is produced. In the presence of the externalinfluence of “Х”, if the command says “no” (disabling of /ban on action), all SFUwould be inactive and no result of action produced. In the presence of externalinfluence and if the command says “yes” (permission for action), all SFU wouldbe active and the result of action produced. The “capacity” of the compositeSFU is 4 times higher than the “capacity” of simple SFU. SFU is activatedthrough the inputs of command of their control blocks. Every simple SFU has itsown DPC and DPC common for all of them. Uncontrollable and controllable SFU maybe used to build other (composite) SFU, more powerful than single SFU. In thereal world there are few simple SFU which bring about minimal indivisibleresult of action. There are a lot more of composite SFU. For instance, thecartridge filled with grains of gunpowder is a constituent part of SFU (SFU fora shot), but its explosion energy is much higher that that of single grain ofgunpowder. The composite SFU flow diagram is very similar to that of simple SFU.It is only quantity variance that stipulates the difference between the compositeand simple SFU. Simple SFU contains only one SFU, just SFU itself, whereas thecomposite SFU contains several SFU, sothere is a possibility of strengthening of the resultof action. Thus, simple and composite SFU contain two types of elements:executive elements (effectors performing specific actions for the achievementof the system’s preset ovearll goal) and the elements of management (block) (DPC,the analyzer-informant and the stimulator activating SFU). Composite SFU has thesame control block as the separate SFU, i.e. the elementary one with directpositive (guiding) connection (DPC). Composite SFU perform based on the “all-or-none”principle, too, i.e. they either produce maximal result of action in response toexternal influence or wait for this external influence and do not perform anyactions. Composite SFU only differ from simple SFU in the force or amplitude ofreaction which is proportional tothe number of simple SFU. If the domino dices are placed in a sequential row theresult of their action would be the lasting sound of the falling dices whichduration would be equal to the sum of series of drops of every dice (extensionof duration of the result of action). If the domino dices are placed in a parallelrow the result of their action would be the short, but loud sound equal to the totalsound volume resulting from the drop of each separate dice(capacity extension). The performance cycle of an idealsimple and composite SFU is formed by micro cycles: perception and selection ofexternal influence by the “X” receptor and decision-making; influence on the executiveelements (SFU); response/operation of executive elements (SFU); functiontermination. The “X” receptor starts to operate following the onset of externalinfluence (the 1st micro cycle).  Subsequently some time would be spent for thedecision-making, since this decision itself is the result of action of certain SFUcomprising the control block (the 2nd micro cycle). Thereafter all SFU would beactivated (joined in) (the 3rd micro cycle). The operating time of the SFUresponse/operation depends on the speed of utilization of energy spent for the SFUperformance, for example, the speed of reduction of sarcomere in a muscular cellwhich is determined by speed of biochemical reactions in the muscular cell.After that all SFU terminate their function (the 4th micro cycle). At that, theSFU spends its entire energy it had and could use to perform this action. Asfar as the sequence of actions and result of action would always be the same, themeasure of energy would always be the same as well (energy quantum). In orderfor the SFU to be able to perform a new action it needs to be “recharged”. Itmay also take some time (the time of charging). The way it happens is discussedin the section devoted to passive and active systems (see below). Any SFU’sperformance cycle consists of these micro cycles. Therefore,its operating cycle time would always be the same and equal to the sum of thesemicro cycles. Once SFU started its actions, it would not stop until it has accomplishedits full cycle. This is the reason of uncontrollability of any SFU in thecourse of their performance (absolute adiaphoria), whereby the externalinfluence may quickly finish and resume, but it would not stop and reactto the new external influence until the SFU has finishedits performance. In real composite SFU these micro cycles may be supplementedby micro cycles caused by imperfection of real objects, for example,non-synchronism of the executive elements’ operationdue to their dissimilarity. Hence, it follows thateven the elementary systems represented by SFU do not react/operate immediatelyand they need some time to produce the result of action. It is this fact thatexplains the inertness/lag effect/ of systems which can be measured by using thetime constant parameter. But generally speaking it is not inertness/lag effect/,but rater a transitory (intermittent) inertness of an object (adiaphoria), itsinability to respond to the external influence at certain phases of itsperformance. True inertness is explained by independence of the result of actionof the system which produced this result (see below). Time constant is the timebetween the onset of external influence and readiness for a new externalinfluence after the achievement of the resultof action. The analogues of composite SFU are allobjects which operate similarly to avalanche. The “domino principle” works insuch cases. One impact brings about the downfall of the whole. However, thenumber of downfalls would be equal to the number of SFU. Pushing one dominodice will cause its drop resulting just in one click. Pushing a row of dominodices will result in as many clicks as is the number of dices in the row.Biological analogues of composite SFU are, for example, functional ventilationunits (FVU), each of which consisting of large group (several hundred) of alveoliwhich are simultaneously joining in process of ventilation or escape from it. Liveracynuses, vascular segments of mesentery, pulmonary vascular functional units,etc., are the analogues of composite SFU. Thus, simple SFU is the object whichcan react to certain external influence, while the result of its performancewould always be maximal because the control block would not control it, i.e. itworks under the “all-or-none” law. The type of its reaction is caused by the typeof SFU. There are two kinds of simple SFU: uncontrollable and controllable.Both react to the specific external influence. But additional externalpermission signal at the command entry point is required for the operation ofcontrollable SFU, whereas the uncontrollable SFU have no command entry point.Therefore, the uncontrollable SFU does not depend on any external guidingsignals. The control block of controllable and uncontrollable SFU consists ofthe analyzer-informant and has only DPC (the “Х” informant and afferentchannels). The composite SystemicFunctional Unit isa kind of an object similar to simple SFU, but the result of its action is stronger.It works under the “all-or-none” law, too, and its reaction is stipulated bytype and number of its SFU. It can really be that the constituent parts of compositeSFU may be controllable and uncontrollable, and the difference between them mayonly be stipulated by the presence of command entry point in the general controlblock through which the permission for the performance of action iscommunicated. The control block of a system is elementary, too, and has onlyDPC and analyzer-informant. Hence, any SFU functionunder the “all-or-none” law. SFU is arranged in such a way that it either doesnothing, or gives out a maximal result of action. Its elementary result ofaction is either delivered or not delivered. There might be SFU which deliversthe result of action, for example, twice as large as the result of action of anotherSFU. But it willalways be twice as large. Each result of action of a simple SFU is quantum ofaction (indivisible portion), at that being maximal for the given SFU. It is indivisiblebecause SFU cannot deliver part (for instance, half) of the result of action.And as far as it is “the indivisible portion” there can not be a gradation. Forinstance, SFU may be opened or closed, generate or not generate electriccurrent, secrete or not secrete something, etc. But it cannot regulate the quantityof the result of action as its result always is either not delivered or is maximal.Such operating mode is very rough, inaccurate and unfavorable both for the SFUper se and its goal/objective. Let’s imagine that instead of a steering wheel inour car there will be a device which will right away maximally swerve to theright when we turn a steering wheel to the right or will maximally swerve tothe left if we turn it to the left. Instead of smooth and accurate trimming to followthe designate course of movement the car will be harshly rushing about fromright to left and other way round. The goal will not be achieved and the carwill be destroyed. Basically the composite Systemic Functional Unit could have deliveredgraded result of action since it has several SFU which it could actuate in a variablesequence. But such system cannot do so because it “does not see” the result ofaction and cannot compare it with what should be done/what it should be.
Quantity of theresult of action. To achieve the preset goal the designation of the quality ofthe result of action only is not sufficient. The goal sets not only “whataction the object should deliver” (quality of the result of action), but also“how much of this action” the given object should deliver (quantity of theresult of action). And the system should seek to perform exactly as much ofspecific action as it is necessary, neither more nor less than that. Thequality of action is determined by SFU type. The quantityis determined by the quantity of SFU. There arethree quantitative characteristics of the result of action: maximum, minimumand optimum quantity of action. In the real world gradation of the results ofaction is required from the real systems. Therefore, the system performanceshould deliver neither maximum nor minimum, but optimum result. Optimum meansperformance based on the principle “it is necessary and sufficient”. It isnecessary that the result of action should be such-and-such, but not another interms of quality and adequate in terms of quantity, neither more nor less.Hence, the SFU cannot be the full-fledged systems. The systems are needed inwhich controllable/adjustable grading of the result of action would bepossible. For example, it is required that the pressure of 100 mm Hg ismaintained in the tissue capillaries. This phrase encompasses presetting ofeverything what is included in the concept “necessary and sufficient” at once.It is necessary… pressure, and it is enough… 10 mm Hg. It is possible tocollate the SFU providing pressure, but not of 10 mm Hg, but, for instance, 100mm Hg. It is too much. It is probably possible to collate theSFU which can provide pressure of 10 mm Hg and atthe moment it might be sufficient. But if the situation has suddenly changedand the requirement is now 100 mm Hg rather than 10 mm Hg, what should be donethen? Should one run about and search for SFU which may provide the 100 mm Hg?And what if it’s impossible to make such system which would be able to provideany pressure in a range, for example, from 0 to 100 mm Hg, depending on asituation? In order to provide the quantity of the result of action which isnecessary at the moment, the grading of the results of action of systems isrequired. It could have been achieved by building the systems from a set ofhomotypic SFU of a type of composite SFU flow diagram. It has what is neededfor the graduation of the result of action as it contains numerous SFU. If itcould be possible to do it so that it enables actuating from one to all of SFU,depending on the need, the result of action would have as much gradation asmany SFU is present in the system. The higher the required degree of accuracy,the more of minor gradations of the result of action should be available.Therefore, instead of one SFU with its extremely large scale result of actionit is necessary to use such amount of SFU with minor result of action which sumis equal to the required maximum, while the accuracy of implementation of thegoal is equal to the result of action of one SFU. However, composite SFU has nopossibility to control the result of action as it has no the unit able of doingit. To deliver the result of action precisely equal to the preset one, it (theresult of action) needs to be continually measured and measuring data comparedwith the task (with command, with “database”). The “database” is a list ofthose due values of result of action which the system should deliver dependingon the magnitude of external influence and algorithm of the control blockoperation. The goal of the system is that each value of the measured externalinfluence should be corresponded by strictly determined value of the resultof action (due value). To this effect it isnecessary “to see” (to measure) the result of action of the system to compareit to the appropriate/due result. And for this purpose the control block shouldhave a “Y” receptor which can measure the result of action and there should bea communication/transmission link (reciprocal paths) through which theinformation from a “Y” receptor would pass to the analyzer-informant, where theresult of this measurement should be compared with what should be/occur (with“database”). The control block of the system should compare external influencewith the due value, whereas the due value should be compared with own result ofaction to see its conformity or discrepancy with the due value. Composite SFUstill can compare external influence with eigen result of action, because ithas DPC, whereas it can not any longer compare due value with the result ofeigen action just because it does not have anything able of doing it (there areno appropriate elements).
Simple controlblock (negative feedback — NF). In order for the control block of the system to“see” (to feel and measure) the result of action of the system, it should havea corresponding “Y” receptor at the outlet/exit point/ of system and the communicationlink between it and a “Y” receptor (reciprocal path). The logic of operation ofsuch control consists in that if the scale of the result of action is lagerthan that of the preset result it is necessary to reduce it, having activatedsmaller number of SFU, and if it is small-scale it is necessary to increase itby actuating larger number of SFU. For this reason such link is callednegative. And as the information moves back from the outlet of system towardsits beginning, it is called feedback/back action.As a result the negative feedback (NF) occurs. A “Y”receptor and reciprocate path comprise NF and together with theanalyzer-informant and efferent cannels (stimulator) form a NF loop. Dependingon the need and based on the NF information the control block would engage ordisengage the functions ofcontrollable SFU as necessary. The difference of this system from the compositeSFU lies only in the presence of a “Y” receptor which measures the result ofaction and reciprocal paths through which the information is transferred fromthis receptor to the analyzer. The number of active SFU is determined by NF.The NF is realized by means of NF loop which includes the “Y” receptor,reciprocal path, through which information from “Y” receptor is transferred tothe analyzer-informant, analyzer proper and efferent channels through which thecontrol block decisions are transferred to the effectors (controllable SFU).Thus, the system, unlike SFU, contains both DPC and NF. Direct positive(controllable) communication activates the system, while negative feedbackdetermines the numberof activated SFU. For example,if larger number of alveolar capillaries in lungs will be opened compared tothe number of the alveoli with appropriate gas composition, arterialization ofvenous blood will be incomplete, and there will be a need to close a part ofalveolar capillaries which “wash” by bloodstream the alveoli with gascomposition not suitable for gas exchange. If the number of such openedcapillaries will be smaller, overloading of pulmonary blood circulation wouldoccur and the pressure in pulmonary artery will increase and there will be aneed to open part of alveolar capillaries. In any case the informant ofpulmonary blood circulation would snap into action and the control block woulddecide what part of capillaries needs to be opened or closed. Hence, thediffusion part of vascular channel of pulmonary bloodstream is the systemcontaining simplecontrol block. The goal of the system is that the result of action of “Y”should be equal to the command “M” (Y=M). Actions of system aimed at theachievement of goal are implemented by executive elements. Control block wouldwatch the accuracy of implementation of actions. The control block containingDPC and NF loop is simple. The algorithm of simple control blocks operation isnot complex. The NF loop would trace continually the result of performance ofexecutive elements (SFU). If the result of action turns out to be of a largerscale than the preset result, it needs to be reduced, and if the result is of asmaller scale than the preset one it needs to be increased. Control parameters(the “database”) are set through the command; for example, what should be thecorrelation between external influence and the result of action, or what levelof the result of action will need to be retained, etc. At that, the maximumaccuracy would be the result of action ofone SFU (quantum of action). Systems with NF, as well as composite SFU, alsocontain two types of objects: executive elements(SFU) (effectors which carry out specific actions for the achievement of thepreset overall goalof the system) and the control block (DPC and NF loop). But besides the “Х”informant, control block of the system also contains the “Y” informant (NF).Therefore, it has information both on the external influence and the result ofaction. Some complexification of the control block brings about a veryessential result. The reason for such a complexification is the need to achieveoptimally accurate implementation of the goal of the system. The NF ensures thepossibility of regulation of quantity of the result of action, i.e. the systemwith NF may perform any required action in an optimal way, from minimum tomaximum, accurate to one quantum of action. Generally speaking, any real systemat that has the third type of objects: service elements, i.e. substructureelements without which executive elements cannot operate. For example, theaircraft has wings to fly, but it also has wheels to take off and land.  Thehaemoglobin molecule contains haem which contains 4 SFU (ligands) and globin,the protein which does not participate directly in transportation of oxygen butwithout which haem cannot work. We have slightly touched upon the issue ofexistence of the third type of objects (service elements) for one purpose onlyto know that they are always present in any system, butwe will not go into detail of their function. Wewill only note that they represent the same ordinary systems aimed at servingother systems. Systems with NF can solve most of the tasks in a far better mannerthan simple or composite SFU. The presence of NF almost does not complexicatethe system.  We have seen that even simple SFU is a very complex formationincluding a set of components. Composite SFU is as many times more complexcompared to simple SFU as is the number almost equalto that of simple SFU. The system with NF is onlysupplemented by one receptor and the communication link between receptor andanalyzer (reciprocal path). But the effect of such change in the structure ofcontrol block is very large-scale and only depends on the algorithm of thecontrol block operation. Any SFU (simple and composite) can implement onlyminimum or maximum action. Systems with NF can surely deliver the optimalresult of action, from minimum to maximum; they are accurate and stable. Theiraccuracy depends only on the value of quantum of action of separate SFU and theNF profundity/intensity/ (see below). Stability is stipulated by that thesystem always “sees” the result of action and can compare it with the appropriate/dueone and correct it if divergence occurs. In real systems the causes for thedivergence are always present, since they exist in the real world where therealways exists perturbation action/disturbing influences. Hence, one can seethat it is NF that turns SFUinto real systems. How does the control block manage the system? Whatparameters are characteristic of it? Any control block is characterized bythree DPC parameters and the same number of NF loop parameters. For DPC it is aminimal level of controllable input stimulus (threshold of sensitivity);maximal level ofcontrollable input stimulus (range of input stimulus sensitivity); timeof engagement of control (decision-makingtime). For NF loop it is minimal level ofcontrollable result of action (threshold of sensitivity of NF loop – NFprofundity/intensity); maximal level of controllable result of action (range ofsensitivity of the result of action); timeof engagement of control (decision-makingtime). Minimal level of controllable input signalfor DPC is the sensitivity threshold of signal of the “Х” receptor wherefromthe analyzer-informant recognizes that the external influence has alreadybegun. For example, if рО2has reached 60 mm Hg the sphincter should be opened (1 SFU is actuated), if theрО2 value is smaller, thenit is closed. Any values of рО2smaller than 60 mm Hg would not lead to the opening of sphincter, because theseare sub-threshold values. Consequently, 60 mm Hg is the operational thresholdof sphincter. Maximum level of controllable entrance signal (range) for DPC isthe level of signal about external influence at which all SFU are actuated. Thesystem cannot react to the further increase in the input signal by theextension of its function, as it does not have any more of SFU reserves. Forexample, if рО2has reached 100 mm Hg all sphincters should be opened (all SFU are activated).Any values of рО2larger than 100 mm Hg will not lead to the opening of additional sphincters,because all of them are already opened, i.e. the values of 60-100 mm Hg are therange of activation ofthe system of sphincters. Time of DPC activation is a time interval between theonset of external influence and the beginning of the system’s operation. Thesystem would never respond immediately after the onset of external influence.Receptors need to feel a signal, the analyzer-informant needs to make thedecision, the effectors transfer the guiding impact to the command entry pointsof the executive elements — all this takes time. The minimal level of thecontrollable exit signal for NF is a threshold of sensitivity of a signal ofthe “Y” receptor, wherefrom the analyzer-informant recognizes whether there isa discrepancy between the result of action of the system and its due value. Thediscrepancy should be equal to or more than the quantum of action of singleSFU. For example, if one sphincter is to be opened and the bloodstream shouldbe minimal (one quantum of action), whereas two sphincters are actually openedand the bloodstream is twice as intensive (two quanta of action), the “Y”receptor should feel an extra quantum. If it is able of doing so, itssensitivity is equal to one quantum. Sensitivityis defined by the NF profundity/intensity. The NFprofundity/intensity is a number of quanta of action of the single SFU systemwhich sum is identified as the discrepancy between the actual andappropriate/proper action. The NF profundity/intensity is presetby the command. The highest possible NFprofundity/intensity is the sensitivity of discrepancy in one quantum of actionof single SFU. The less the NF profundity/intensity, the less is sensitivity,the more it is “rough”. In other words, the less the NF profundity/intensity,the larger value of the discrepancy between the result of action and the properresult is interpreted as discrepancy. For example, even two (three, ten, etc.)quanta of action of two (three, ten, etc.) SFU is interpreted as discrepancy.Minimal NF profundity/intensity is its absence. In this case any discrepancy ofthe result of action with the proper one is not interpreted by the controlblock as discrepancy. The result of action would be maximal and the system withsimple control block with zero NF profundity/intensity would turn intocomposite SFU with DPC (with simplest/elementary control block). For example,the system of the Big Circle of Blood circulation for microcirculationin fabric capillaries should hold average pressure of 100 mm Hg accurate to 1mm Hg. At the same time, average arterial pressure can fluctuate from 80 to 200mm Hg. The value “100 mm Hg” determines the level of controllable result ofaction. The value “from 80 to 200 mm Hg” is the range of controllable external(entry) influence. The value of “1 mm Hg” is determined by NF profundity/intensity.Smaller NF profundity/intensity would control the parameter with smaller degreeof accuracy, for example, to within 10 mm Hg (more roughly) or 50 mm Hg (evenmore roughly), while the higher NF profundity/intensity would do it with higherdegree of accuracy, for example to within 0.1 mm Hg (finer). Maximal NFsensitivity is limited to the value of quantum of action of SFU which are partof the system, and the NF profundity/intensity. But in any case, if discrepancybetween the level of the controllable and preset parameters occurs to theextent higher than the value of the preset accuracy, the NF loop should “feel”this divergence and “force” executive elements to perform so that to eliminatethe discrepancy of the goal and the result of action. Maximal level ofcontrollable outlet/exit signal (range) for NF is the level of signal about theresult of action of the system at which all SFU are actuated. The system cannotreact to the further increase in entry signal by increase in its function anymore, becauseit has no more of SFU reserves. The time of actuating of NF control is the timeinterval between the onset of discrepancy of signal about the result of actionwith the preset result and the beginning of the system’s operation. All theseparameters can be “built in” DPC and NF loops or set primordially (the commandis entered at their “birth” and they do not furthervary any more), or can be entered through the commandlater, and these parameters can be changed by meansof input of a new command from the outside. For this purpose there should be achannel of input of the command. Simple control block in itself cannot changeany of these parameters. Absolutely all systems havecontrol block, but it cannot be always found explicitly. In the aircraft or aspaceship this block is presented by the on-board computer, a box withelectronics. In human beings and animals such block is the brain, or at leastnervous system. But where is the control block located in a plant or bacterium?Where is the control block located in atom or molecule, or, for example,the control block in a nail? The easier the system, the more difficult it isfor us to single out forms of control block habitual for us. However, it ispresent in any systems. Executive elements are responsible for the quality ofresult of action, while the control block – for its quantity. The control blockcan be, for example, intra- or internuclear and intermolecularconnections/bonds. For example, in atom the SFU functions are performed by electrons,protons and neutrons, and those of control block by intra-nuclear forces or, inother words, interactions. The intra-atomic command, for example, is thecondition that there can be no more than 2 electrons at the first electroniclevel, 8 electrons at the second level, etc., (periodic law determined by Pauliprinciple), this level being rigidly designated by quantum numbers. If theelectron has somewise received additional energy and has risen above its levelit cannot retain it for a long time and will go back, thereby releasing surplusof energy in the form of a photon. At that, not just any energy can lift theelectron onto the other level, but only and only specific one (thecorresponding quantum of energy). It also rises not just onto any level, butonly onto the strictly preset one. If the energy of the external influence isless than the corresponding quantum, the electron level stabilization systemwould keep it in a former orbit (in a former condition) until the energy ofexternal influence exceeded the corresponding level. If the energy of externalinfluence is being continually accrued in a ramp-up mode, the electron wouldrise from one level to other not in a linear mode but by leaps (which arestrictly defined by quantum laws) into higher orbits as soon as the energy ofinfluence exceeds certain threshold levels. The number of levels of anelectron’s orbit in atom is probably very large and equal to the number ofspectral lines of corresponding atom, but each level is strictly fixed and determinedby quantum laws. Hence, some kind of mechanism (system of stabilization ofquantum levels) strictly watches the performance of these laws, and thismechanism should have its own SFU and control blocks. The number of levels ofthe electron’s orbit is possibly determined by the number of intranuclear SFU(protons and neutrons or other elementary particles), which result of action isthe positioning of electron in an electronic orbit. For example, in a nailsystem the command would be its form and geometricalvalues. This commandis entered into the control block one-time at themoment of nail manufacture when its values (at the moment of its “birth”) aremeasured and is not entered later any more. But when the commandis already entered the system should execute thiscommand,i.e. in this case the nail should keep itsform and values even if it is being hammered. In any control block type thecommand shouldbe entered intoat some point of time inone way or another. We cannot make just a nail “in general”, but only the onewith concrete form and preset values. Therefore, at the moment of itsmanufacture (i.e. one-time) we give it the “task”to be of such-and-such form and values. The commandcan vary if there is a channel of input of the command. For example, whenturning on the air conditioner we can “give it a task” to hold air temperatureat 20°С and thereafter change the command for 25°С. The nail does not have achannel of input of the order, while the air conditioner does. Consequently,the system with simple control block is the object which can react to certainexternal influence, and the result ofits action is graduated and stable. The number of gradation is determined bythe number SFU in the system and the accuracy is determined by quantum of action(the size, result) of singleSFU and NF profundity/intensity. The result of action is accurate because thecontrol block supervises it by means of NF. Type of control is based onmismatch/error plus error-rate control/. Control would only start after theoccurrence of external influence or delivery of the result of action. Stabilityof the result of action is determined by NF profundity/intensity. Systemreaction is conditioned by type and number of its SFU. Simple control block hasthree channels of control: one external (command) and two internal (DPC andNF). It reacts to external influence through DPC (the “Х” informant) and to itsown result of action of the system (the “Y” informant) through NF, whereas itcontrols executive elements of the system through efferent channels. Analoguesof systems with simple control block are all objects of inanimate/inorganicworld: gas clouds, crystals, various solid bodies, planets, planetary andstellar systems, etc. Biological analogues of systems with simple control blockare protophytes and metaphytes, bacteria and all vegetative/autonomic systemsof an organism, including, for example, external gas exchange system, bloodcirculation system, external gaseous metabolism system, digestion or immunesystems. Even single-celled animal organisms of amoebas and infusorian type,inferior animal classes (jellyfish etc.) are the systems with complex controlblocks/units (see below). All vegetative and many motor reflexes of higher animals which actuate at all levels starting from intramural nerve gangliathrough hypothalamus are structured as simple control blocks. If they areaffected by guiding influence of cerebral cortex, higher type (complex)reflexes come into service (see below). Analogues of the “Х” informant receptorsare all sensitive receptors (haemo-, baro-, thermo- and other receptors locatedin various bodies, except visual, acoustical and olfactory receptors which arepart of the “C” informant, see below). Analogues of the “Y” informant receptorsare all proprio-sensitive receptors which can also be haemo-, baro-, thermo-and other receptors located in different organs. Analogues of the control blockstimulators are all motor and effector nerves stimulating cross-striped,unstriated muscular systems and secretory cells, as well as hormones,prostaglandins and other metabolites having any effect on the functions of anysystems of organism. Analogues of the analyzer-informant in the mineral andvegetative media are only connections/bonds between the elements of a type ofdirect connection of “X” and “Y” informants with effectors (axon reflexes). Invegetative systems ofanimals connections are also of a type of direct connection of “X” and “Y”informants with effectors (humoral and metabolic regulation), as well as axonreflex (controls only nervules without involvement of nerve cell itself) andunconditioned reflexes (at the level of intra-organ intramural and otherneuronic formations right up to hypothalamus). Thus, using DPC and NF andregulating the performance of its SFU the system produces the results of actionqualitatively and quantitatively meeting the preset goal.
Principle ofindependence of the result of action. As it was already repeatedly underlined,the purpose/goal of any system is to get the appropriate/due (target-oriented)result of action arising from the performance of the system. Actually externalinfluence, “having entered” the system, would be transformed to the result ofaction of the system. That is why systems are actually the converters ofexternal influence into the result of action and of the cause into effect.External influence is in turn the result of action of other system whichinteracted with the former. Consequently, the result of action, once it has“left” one system and “entered” into another, would now exist independently ofthe system which produced it. For example, a civil engineering firm had a goalto build a house from certain quantity of building material (externalinfluence). After a number of actions of this firm the house was built (theresult of action). The firm could further proceed to the construction of otherhouse, or cease to exist orchange the line of business from construction to sewing shop. But theconstructed house will already exist independently of the firm whichconstructed it. The purpose of the automobile engine (the car subsystem) isburning certain quantity of fuel (external influence for the engine) to receivecertain quantity of mechanical energy (the result of action of the engine). Thepurpose of a running gear (other subsystem of the car) is transformation ofmechanical energy of the engine (external influence for running gear) intocertain number of revolutions of wheels (result of action of running gear). Thepurpose of wheels is transformation of certain number of revolutions (externalinfluence for wheels) into the kilometers of travel (result of action ofwheels). All in all, the result of action of the car will be kilometers oftravel which will already exist independently of the car which has driven themthrough. Photon released from atom which can infinitely roam the space of theUniverse throughout many billions years will be the result of action of theexited electron. Result of a slap of an oar by water is the depression/hollowon the water surface which could have also remained there forever if it werenot for the fluidity of water and the influence on it of thousand otherexternal influences. However, after thousand influences it will not any moreremain in the form of depression/hollow, but in the form of other long chain ofresults of actions of other systems because nothing disappears in this world,but transforms into other forms. Conservation law is inviolable.
System cyclesand transition processes. Systems just like SFU have cycles of their activityas well. Different systems can have different cycles of activity and theydepend on the complexity and algorithm of the control block. The simplest cycleof work is characteristic of a system with simple control block. It is formed ofthe following micro cycles: perception, selection and measurement of externalinfluence by the “X” receptor; selection from “database” of due value of theresult of action; transition process (NF multi-micro-cycle);
a) perceptionand measurement of the result of action by the “Y” receptor — b) comparison ofthis result with the due value – c) development of the decision andcorresponding influence on SFU for the purpose of correction of the result ofaction – d) influence on SFU, if the result of action is not equal to theappropriate/due one, or transition to the 1st micro cycle if it is equal to theproper one – e) actuation of SFU – f) return to “a)”.
After the onsetof external influence the “X” receptor would snap into action (1st microcycle). Thereafter the value of the result of action which has to correspond tothe given external influence (2nd micro cycle) is selected from the “database”.It is then followed by transition process (transition period, 3rdmulti-micro-cycle, NF cycle): actuation of the “Y” receptor, comparison of theresult of action with the due value selected from the “database”, correctiveinfluence on SFU (the number of actuated SFU mill be the one determined bycontrol block inthe micro cycle “c”) and again return to the actuation of the “Y” receptor. Itwould last in that way until the result of action is equal to the presetone. From this point the purpose/goal is reached and after that the controlblock comes back to the 1st micro cycle, to the reception of external influence.System performance for the achievement of the result of action would not stopuntil there new external influence emerges. The aforementioned should besupplemented by a very essential addition. It has already been mentioned whenwe were examining the SFU performance cycles that after any SFU is actuated itcompletely spends all its stored energy intended for the performance of action.Therefore, after completion of action SFU is unable of performing any newaction until it restores its power capacity, and it takes additional time whichcan substantially increase the duration of the transition period. That is why aspeed of movement (e.g., running) of a sportsman’s body whose system of oxygendelivery to the tissues is large (high speed of energy delivery) would be fastas well. And the speed of movement of a cardiac patient’s body would be slowbecause the speed of energy delivery is reduced due to the affection of bloodcirculation system which is a part of the body’s system of power supply. Sickpersons spent a long time to restore energy potential of muscular cells becauseof the delayed ATP production that requires a lot of oxygen. Micro cycles from1st to 2nd constitute the starting period of control block performance. In caseof short-term external influence control block would determine it during thestart cycle and pass to the transition period during which it would seek toachieve the actual result of action equal to the proper one. If externalinfluence appears again during the transition period the control block will notreact to it because during this moment it would not measure “Х” (refractoryphase). Upon termination of the transition period the control block would goback/resort/ to the starting stage, but while it does so (resorts), the achieveddue value of the result of action would remain invariable (the steady-stateperiod). If external influence would be long enough and not vary so that afterthe first achievement of the goal the control block has time to resort toreception “X” again, the steady value of the result of action would be retainedas long as the external influence continues. At that, the transition cycle willnot start, because the steady-state value of the result of action is equal tothe proper/due one. If long external influence continues and changes itsamplitude, the onset of new transition cycle may occur. At that, the more thechange in the amplitude of external influence, the larger would be theamplitude of oscillation of functions. Therefore, sharp differences of amplitudeof external influence are inadmissible, since they cause diverseundesirable effects associatedwith transition period.
If externalinfluence is equal to zero, all SFU are deactivated, as zero external influenceis corresponded by zero activation of SFU. If, after a short while there wouldbe new external influence, the system would repeat all in a former order.Duration of the system performance cycle is also seriously affected byprocesses of restoration of energy potential of the actuated SFU. Every SFU,when being actuated, would spend definite (quantized) amount of energy, whichis either brought in by external influence per se or is being accumulated bysome subsystems of power supply of the given system. In any case, energypotential restoration also needs time, but we do not consider these processesas they associated only with the executive elements (SFU), while we onlyexamine the processes occurring in the control blocks of the systems. Thus, thesystem continually performs in cycles, while accomplishing its micro cycles. Inthe absence of external influence or if it does not vary, the system wouldremain at one of its stationary levels and in the same functional conditionwith the same number of functioning SFU, from zero to all. In such a mode itwould not have transition multi-micro-cycle (long-time repeat of the 3rd microcycle). Every change of level of external influence causes transitionprocesses. Transition of function to a new level would only become possiblewhen the system is ready to do it. Such micro cycles in various systems maydiffer in details, but all systems without exception have the NFmulti-micro-cycle. With all its advantages the NF has a very essential fault,i.e. the presence of transition processes. The intensity of transition processdepends on a variety of factors. It can range from minimal to maximal, buttransition processes are always present in all systems in a varying degree ofintensity. They are unavoidable in essence, since NF actuates as soon as theresult of action of the system is produced. It would take some time untilaffectors of the system feel a mismatch, until the control block makescorresponding decision, until effectors execute this decision, until the NFmeasures the result of action and corrects the decision and the process isrepeated several times until necessary correlation “… external influence →result of action...” is achieved. Therefore, at this time there can be anyunexpected nonlinear transition processes breaking normal operating mode of thesystem. For this reason at the time of the first “actuation” of the system orin case of sharp loading variations it needs quite a long period ofsetting/adjustment. And even in the steady-state mode due to various casualfluctuations in the environment there can be a minor failure in the NFoperation and minor transition processes (“noise” of the result of action ofreal system). The presence of transition processes imposes certain restrictionson the performance and scope of use of systems. Slow inertial systems are notsuitable for fast external influences as the speed of systems’ operation isprimarily determined by the speed of NF loop operation. Indeed, the speed ofexecutive element’s operation is the basis of the speed of system operation onthe whole, but NF multi-micro-cycle contributes considerably to the extensionof the system’s operation cycle. Therefore, when choosing the load on theliving organism it is necessary to take into consideration the speed of systemoperation and to select speed of loading so as to ensure the least intensity oftransition processes. The slower the variation of external influence, theshorter is the transition process. Transition period becomes practicallyunapparent when the variation of external influence is sufficiently slow.Consequently, if external influence varies, the duration of transition periodmay vary from zero to maximum depending on the speed of such variation and thespeed of operation of the system’s elements. Transition period is the process oftransition from one level of functional state to another. The “smaller” thesteps of transition from one level on another, the less is the amplitudeof transition processes. In case of smooth change ofloading notransition processes take place. The intensity of transition processes dependson the SFU caliber, force of external influence, duration of SFU charging,sensitivity of receptors, the time of their operation, the NFintensity/profundity and algorithm of the control block operation. But thesecycles of systems’ performance and transition processes are present both inatoms and electronic circuitry, planetary systems and all other systems of ourWorld, including human body.
If systems didnot have transition processes, transition process period would have been alwaysequal to zero and the systems would have been completely inertia-free. But suchsystems are non-existent and inertness is inherent in a varying degree in anysystem. For example, in electronics the presence of transition processes generatesadditional harmonics of electric current fluctuations in various amplifiers orcurrent generators. Sophisticated circuit solutions are applied to suppressthereof, but they are present in any electronic devices, considerablysuppressed though. Time constant of systems with simple control blocks includestime constants of every SFU plus changeable durations of NF transition periods.Therefore, constant of time of such systems is not quite constant sinceduration of NF transition periods can vary depending on the force of externalimpact. Transition processes in systems with simple control blocks increase theinertness of such systems. Inertness of systems leads to various phasedisturbances of synchronization and balance of interaction between systems. Thereare numerous ways to deal with transition processes. External impacts may befiltered in such a way that toprevent from sharp shock impacts (filtration, a principle of graduality ofloading). Knowing the character of external impacts/influences in advance andforeseeing thereof which requires seeing them first (and it can only be done,at the minimum, by complex control blocks) would enable designing of such anappropriate algorithm of control block operation which would ensure findingcorrect decision by the 3rd micro cycle (prediction based control/management).However, it is only feasible forintellectual control blocks. Apparently it’s impossible for us to completelyget rid of the systems’ inertness so far. Therefore, if the externalimpact/influence does not vary and the transition processes are practicallyequal to zero the system would operate cyclically and accurately on one of itsstationary levels, or smoothly shift from one stationary level to another ifexternal influence varies, but does it quite slowly. If transition processesbecome notable, the system operation cycles become unequal due to the emergenceof transition multi-micro-cycles, i.e. period of transition processes. At that,nonlinear effects reduce the system’s overall performance. In our everyday lifewe often face transition processes when, being absolutely unprepared, we leavea warm room and get into the cold air outside and catch cold. In the warm roomall systems of our organism were in a certain balance of interactions and everythingwas all right. But here we got into the cold air outside and all systems shouldimmediately re-arrange on a new balance. If they have no time to do it andhighly intensive transition processes emerge that cause unexpected fluctuationsof results of actions of body systems, imbalance of interactions of systemsoccurs which is called “cold” (we hereby do not specify the particularsassociated with the change of condition of the immune system). After a whilethe imbalance would disappear and the cold would be over as well. If we makeourselves fit, we can train our “control blocks” to foresee sharp strikes ofexternal impacts to reduce transition processes; we then will be able even tobathe in an ice hole. Transition processes of special importance for us arethose arising from sharp change of situation around us. Stress-syndrome isdirectly associated with this phenomenon. The sharper the change of thesituation around us, the more it gets threatening (external influence isstronger), the sharper transition processes are, right up to paradoxicalreactions of a type of stupor. At that, the imbalance of performance of varioussites of nervous system (control blocks) arises, which leads to imbalance ofvarious systems of organism and the onset of various pathological reactions andprocesses of a type of vegetative neurosis and depressions, ischaemia up toinfarction and ulcers, starting from mouth cavity (aphtae) to large intestineulcers (ulcerative colitis, gastric and duodenum ulcers, etc.), arterial hypertension,etc.
Cyclicrecurrence is a property of systems not of a living organism only. Any systemoperates in cycles. If external influence is retained at a stable level, thesystem would operate based on this minimal steady-state cycle. But external influencemay change cyclically as well, for example, from a sleep to sleep, from dinnerto dinner, etc. These are in fact secondary, tertiary, etc., cycles. Providedconstructing the graphs of functions of a system, we get wavy curvescharacterizing recurrence. Examples include pneumotachogram, electrocardiogramcurves, curves of variability of gastric juice acidity, sphygmogram curves,curves of electric activity of neurons, periodicity of the EEG alpha rhythm,etc. Sea waves, changes of seasons, movements of planets, movements of trains,etc., — these are all the examples of cyclic recurrence of various systems. Theforms of cyclic recurrence curves may be of all sorts. The electrocardiogramcurve differs from the arterial pressure curve, and the arterial pressure curvediffers from the pressure curve in the aortic ventricle. Variety of cyclicrecurrence curves is infinite. Two key parameters characterize recurrence: theperiod (or its reciprocal variable — frequency) and nonuniformity of theperiod, which concept includes the notion of frequency harmonics. Nonuniformityof the cycle period should not be resident in SFU (the elementary system) asits performance cycles are always identical. However, the systems havetransition periods which may have various cycle periods. Besides, varioussystems have their own cyclic periods and in process of interaction of systemsinterference (overlap) of periods may occur. Therefore, additional shifting ofown systems’ periods takes place and   harmonics of cycles emerge. The numberof such wave overlaps can be arbitrary large. That is why in reality we observea very wide variety of curves: regular sinusoids, irregular curves, etc.However, any curves can be disintegrated into constituent waves thereof, i.e.disintegration of interference into its components using special analyticalmethods, e.g. Fourier transformations. Resulting may be a spectrum of simplerwaves of a sinusoid type. The more detailed (and more labour-consuming, though)the analysis, the nearer is the form of each component to a sinusoid and thelarger is the number of sinusoidal waves with different periods.
The period ofsystem cycle is a very important parameter for understanding the processesoccurring in any system, including in living organisms. Its duration depends ontime constant of the system’s reaction to external impact/influence. Once thesystem starts recurrent performance cycle, it would not stop until it has notfinished it. One may try to affect the system when it has not yet finished the cycleof actions, but the system’s reaction to such interference would be inadequate.The speed of the system’s functions progression depends completely on theduration of the system performance cycle. The longer the cycle period, theslower the system would transit from one level to another. The concepts ofabsolute and relative adiaphoria are directly associated with the concept ofperiod andphase of system cycle. If, for example, the myocardium has not finished its“systole-diastole” cycle, extraordinary (pre-term) impulse of rhythm pacemakeror extrasystolic impulse cannot force the ventricle to produce adequate strokerelease/discharge. The value of stroke discharge may vary from zero to maximumpossible, depending on at which phase of adiphoria period extrasystolic impulseoccurs. If the actuating pulse falls on the 2nd and 3rd micro cycles, themyocardium would not react to them at all (absolute adiphoria), sinceinformation from the “X” receptor is not measured at the right time.Myocardium, following the contraction, would need, as any other cell would dofollowing its excitation, some time to restore its energy potential (ATPaccumulation) and ensure setting of all SFU in “startup” condition. Ifextraordinary impulse emerges at this time, the system’s response might bedependent on the amount of ATP already accumulated or the degree in whichactomyosin fibers of myocardium sarcomeres diverged/separated in order to joinin the function again (relative adiphoria). Excitability of an unexcited cellis the highest. At the moment of its excitation excitabilitysharply falls to zero (all SFU in operation, 2ndmicro cycle) – absolute adiphoria. Thereafter, if there is no subsequentexcitation, the system would gradually restore its excitability, while passingthrough the phases of relative adiphoria up to initial or even higher level(super-excitability, which is not examined in this work) and then againto initial level. Therefore, pulse irregularity maybe observed in patients with impaired cardial function, when sphygmic beats areforce-wise uneven. Extreme manifestation of such irregularity is the so-called“Jackson’s symptom” /pulse deficiency/, i.e. cardiac electric activity is shownon the electrocardiogram, but there is no its mechanical (haemodynamic)analogue on the sphygmogram and sphygmic beats are not felt when palpating thepulse. The main conclusions from all the above are as follows: any systemsoperate in cycles passing through micro cycles; any system goes throughtransition process; cycle period may differ in various systems depending on time constant of the system’s reaction to the external impact/influence (inliving systems – on the speed of biochemical reactions and the speed ofcommand/actuating  signals); irregularity of the system’s cycle period dependson the presence of transition processes, consequently, to a certain degree onthe force of external exposure/influence; irregularity of the system cycleperiod depends on overlapping of cycle periods of interacting systems; upontermination of cycle of actions after single influence the system reverts tothe original state, in which it was prior to the beginning of externalinfluence (one single result of action with one single external influence). Thelatter does not apply to the so-called generating systems. It is associatedwith the fact that after the result of action has been achieved by the system,it becomes independent of the system which produced it and may become externalinfluence in respect to it. If it is conducted to the external influence entrypoint of the same system, the latter would again get excited and again producenew result of action (positive feedback, PF). This is how all generators work.Thus, if the first external influence affects the system or external influenceis ever changing, the number of functioning SFU systems varies. If no externalinfluence is exerted on the system or is being exerted but is invariable, thenumber of functioning system SFU would not vary. Based on the above we can drawthe definitions of stationary conditions and dynamism of process.
Functionalcondition of system. Functional condition of the system is defined by thenumber of active SFU. If all SFU function simultaneously, it shows highfunctional condition which arises in case of maximum external influence. Ifnone SFU is active it shows minimum functional condition. It may occur in theabsence of external influence. External environmentalways exerts some kind of influence on some systems, including the systems oforganism. Even in quiescent state the Earth gravitational force makes part ofour muscles work and consequently absolute rest is non-existent. So, when weare kind of in quiescent state we actually are in one of the low level statesof physical activity with the corresponding certain low level of functionalstate of the organism. Any external influence requiring additional vigorousactivity would transfer to a new level of a functional condition unless the SFUreserve is exhausted. When new influence is set at a new invariable(stationary) level, functional condition of a system is set on a new invariable(stationary) functional level.
Stationarystates/modes. Stationary state is such a mode of systems when one and the samenumber of SFU function and no change occurs in their functional state. Forexample, in quiescence state all systems of organism do not change theirfunctional mode as far as about the same number of SFU is operational. A femalerunner who runs a long distance for quite a long time without changing thespeed is also in a stationary state/mode. Her load does not vary andconsequently the number of working (functioning) SFUdoes not change either, i.e. the functional state ofher organism does not change. Her organism has already “got used” to thisunchangeable loading and as there is no increase of load there is no increasein the number of working SFU, too. The number of working SFU remains constantand therefore the functional state/mode of the organism does not change. Whatmay change in this female runner’s body is, e.g. the status of tissue energygeneration system and the status of tissue energy consumption system, which isin fact the process ofexhaustion of organism. However, if the female runner has duly planned her runtactics so that not to find herself in condition of anaerobic metabolism, thecondition of external gas metabolism and blood circulation systems would notchange. So, regardless of whether or not physical activity is present, but ifit does not vary (stationary physical loadings /steady state/, provided it isadequate to the possibilities of the organism), the organism of the subjectwould be in a stationary state/mode. But if the female runner runs inconditions of anaerobic metabolism the“vicious circle” will be activated and functional condition of her organismwill start change steadily to the worse. (Thevicious circle is the system’s reaction to its own result of action. Its basisis hyper reaction of system to routine influence, since the force of routineexternal influence is supplemented by the eigen result of action of the systemwhich is independent of the latter and presents external influence in respectto it. Thus, routine external influence plus the influence of the system’s ownresult of action all in all brings about hyper influence resulting in hyperreaction of the system (systemoverload). The outcome of this reaction is the destruction own SFU coupled withaccumulation of defects and progressing decline in the quality of life. At theinitial stages while functional reserves are still large, the vicious circlebecomes activated under the influence of quite a strong external action (heavyload condition). But in process of SFU destruction and accumulation of defectsthe overload of adjacent systems and their destruction would accrue (the dominoprinciple), whereas the level of load tolerance would recede and with the lapseof time even weak external influences will cause vicious circle actuation andmay prove to be excessive. Eventually even the quiescent state will be theexcessive loading for an organism with destroyed SFU which condition isincompatible with life. Usually termination of loading would discontinue thisvicious circle.
Dynamicprocesses. Dynamic process is the process of changing functional state/mode/conditionof the system. The system is in dynamic process when the change in the numberof its actuated SFU occurs. The number of continually actuated SFU woulddetermine stationary state/mode/condition of the system. Hence, dynamic processis the process of the system’s transition from one stationary level to another.If the speed of change in external influences exceeds the speed of fixing thepreset result of action of the system, transition processes(multi-micro-cycles) occur during which variation of number of functioning SFUalso takes place. Therefore, these transition processes are also dynamic.Consequently, there are two types of dynamic processes: when the system isshifting from one stationary condition (level) to another and when it is intransient multi-micro-cycle. The former is target-oriented, whereas the latteris caused by imperfection of systems and is parasitic, as its actions take awayadditional energy which was intended for target actions. When the system is instationary condition some definite number of SFU (from zero to all) isactuated. The minimum step of change of level of functional condition is thevalue determined by the level of operation of one SFU (one quantum of action).Hence, basically transition from one level of functional condition to anotheris always discrete (quantized) rather than smooth, and this discrecity isdetermined by the SFU “caliber”. Then umber of stationary conditions is equalto the number of SFU of the system. Systems with considerable quantity of“small” SFU would pass through dynamic processes more smoothly and withoutstrenuous jerks, than systems with small amount of “large” SFU. Hence, dynamicprocess is characterized by an amplitude of increment of the system’s functionsfrom minimum to maximum (the system’s minimax; depends on its absolute numberof SFU), discrecity or pace of increment of functions (depends on the “caliber”or quantum of individual SFU) and parameters of the function’s cyclicrecurrence (speed of increase of actions of system, the period of phases of acycle, etc.). It can be targeted or parasitic. It should be noted thatstationary condition is also a process, but it’s the steady-state (stationary)process. In such cases the condition of systems does not vary from cycle tocycle. But during each cycle a number of various dynamic processes take placein the system as the system itself consists of subsystems, each of which inturn consists of cycles and processes. The steady-state process keeps system inone and the same functional condition and at one and the same stationary level.In accordance with the above definition, if a system does not change itsfunctional condition, it is in stationary condition. Consequently, thesteady-state process and stationary condition mean one the same thing, becauseirrespective of whether the systems are in stationary condition or in dynamicprocess, some kind of stationary or dynamic processes may take place in theirsubsystems. For example, even just a mere reception by the “Х” receptor is adynamic process. Hence, there are no absolutely inert (inactive) objects andany object of our World somewise operates in one way or another. It is assumedthat the object may be completely “inactive” at zero degrees of Kelvin scale(absolute zero). Attempts to obtain absolutely inactive systems were undertakenby freezing of bodies up to percentage of Kelvin degrees. It’s unlikely though,that any attempts to freeze a body to absolute zero would be a success, becausethe body would still move in space, cross some kind of magnetic, gravitationalor electric fields and interact with them. For this reason at present it isprobably impossible in principle to get absolutely inert and inactive body. Theintegral organism represents mosaic of systems which are either in differentstationary conditions, or in dynamic processes. One could possibly make anobjection that there are no systems in stationary condition in the organism atall, as far as some kind of dynamic processes continually occur in some of its systems.During systole the pressure in the aorta increases and during diastole it goesdown, the heart functions continuously and blood continuously flows through thevessels, etc. That is all very true, but evaluation of the system’s functionsis not made based on its current condition, but the cycles of its activity.Since all processes in any systems are cyclic, including in the organism, thecriterion of stationarity is the invariance of integral condition of the systemfrom one cycle to another. Aorta reacts to external influence (stroke/systolicdischarge of the left ventricle) in such a way that in process of increase ofpressure its walls’ tension increases, while it falls in process of pressurereduction. However, take, for example, the longer time period than the one ofthe cardiocycle, the integrated condition of the aorta would not vary from onecardiocycle to another and remain stationary.
Evaluation offunctional state of systems. Evaluation may be qualitative and quantitative.The presence (absence) of any waves on the curve presents quality evaluation,whereas their amplitude or frequency is their quantitative evaluation. For theevaluation of functional condition of any systems comparison of the results ofmeasurements of function parameters to those that should be with the givensystem is needed. In order to be able to judge about the presence (absence) ofpathology, it is not enough to measure just any parameter. For example, we havemeasured someone’s blood pressure and received the value of 190/100 mm Hg. Isit a high pressure or it is not? And what it should be like? To answer thesequestions it is necessary to compare the obtained result to a standard scale,i.e. to the due value. If the value obtained differs from the appropriate one,it speaks of the presence of pathology, if it does not, then it means there isno pathology. If blood pressure value of an order of 190/100 mm Hg is observedin quiescent state it would speak of pathology, while at the peak maximum loadthis value would be a norm. Hence, due values depend on the condition in whichthe given system is. There exist standard scales for the estimation of duevalues. There exist maximum and minimum due values, due values of quiescencestate and peak load values, as well as due curves of functions. Minimum andmaximum due values should not always correspondto those of quiescence state or peak load. Forexample, total peripheral vascular resistance should be maximum in quiescencestate and minimum when loaded. Modern medicine makes extensive use of thesekinds of due values, but is almost unfamiliar with the concept of due curves.Due value is what may be observed in most normal and healthy individuals withaccount taken of affiliation of a subject to certain standard group of alike subjects.If all have such-and-such value and normally exist in the given conditions,then in order for such subject to be also able to exist normally in the sameconditions, he/she should be characterized by thesame value. For this purpose statistical standard scales are applied which arederived by extensive detailed statistical research in specific groups ofsubjects. These are so-called statistical mathematical models. They show whatparameters should be present in the given group of subjects. However, the useof standard tables is a primitive way of evaluation of systems’ functions.First, they provide due values characterizing only a group of healthyindividuals rather than the given concrete subject. Secondly, we already knowthat systems at each moment of time are in one of their functional states andit depends on external influences. For example, when the system is inquiescence state it is at its lowest level of functional condition, while beingat peak load it is at its highest level. What do these tables suggest then?They probably suggest due values for the systems of organism in quiescencestate or at their peak load condition. But, after all, the problems of patientsare not those associated with their status in quiescence state, and the level oftheir daily normal (routine) load is not their maximum load. For normalevaluation of the functional condition of the patient’s organism it isnecessary to use not tabular data of due values, but due curves of functions ofthe body systems which nowadays are almost not applied. Coincidence ornon-coincidence of actual curves of the body systems’ functions with due curveswould be a criterion of their sufficiency or insufficiency. Hence, applicationof standard tables is insufficient and does not meet the requirements ofadequate diagnostics. Application of due curves is more of informativecharacter (see below). Statistical mathematical models do not provide suchaccuracy, howsoever exact we measure parameters. They show what values ofparameters should be in a certain group of subjects alike in terms of certainproperties, for example, males aged 20-30 years, of 165-175 cm height, smokersor non-smokers, married or single, paleface, yellow- or black-skinned, etc.Statistical models are much simpler than those determined, but less exactthough, since in relation to the given subject we can only know something withcertain degree (e.g. 80%) of probability. Statistical models apply when we donot know all elements of the system and laws of their interaction. Then we huntfor similar systems on the basis of significant features, we somewise measurethe results of action of all these systems operating in similar conditions(clinical tests) and calculate mean value of the result of action. Havingassumed that the given subject closely approximates the others, becauseotherwise he/she would not be similar to them, we say: “Once these (people)have such-and-such parameters of the given system in such-and-such conditionsand they live without any problems, then he/she should have these sameparameters if he/she is in the same conditions”. However, a subject’s livingconditions do always vary. Change or failure to account even one significantparameter can change considerably the results of statistical researches, and thisis a serious drawback of statistical mathematical models. Moreover, statisticalmodels often do not reveal the essence of pathological process at all. Thefunctional residual capacity (FRC) of lungs shows volume of lungs in the end ofnormal exhalation and is a certain indicator of the number of functional unitsof ventilation (FUV). Hence, the increase in FRC indicates the increase in thenumber FUV? But in patients with pulmonary emphysema FRC is considerablyoversized. All right then, does this mean that the number of FUV in suchpatients is increased? It is nonsense, as we know that due to emphysemadestruction of FUV occurs! And in patients with insufficiency of pumpingfunction of left ventricle reduction of FRC is observed. Does this mean that thenumber of FUV is reduced in such patients? It is impossible to give definiteanswer to these questions without the knowledge of the dynamics of externalrespiration system function and pulmonary blood circulation. Hence, the majordrawback of statistical models consists in that sufficiently reliable resultsof researches can be obtained only in the event that all significant conditionsdefining the given group of subjects are strictly observed. Alteration oraddition of one or several significant conditions of research, for example,stature/height, sex, weight, the colour of eyes, open window during sleep,place of residence, etc., may alter very much the final result by adding a newgroup of subjects. As a result, if we wish to know, e.g. vitalcapacity of lungs in the inhabitants of New York wemust conduct research among the inhabitants of New York rather than theinhabitants of Moscow, Paris or Beijing, and these data may not apply, forexample, to the inhabitants of Rio de Janeiro. Moreover, standards/norms maydiffer inthe inhabitants of different areas of New York depending on national/ethnic/identity, environmental pollution in these areas, social level and etc. Surely,one may investigate all conceivable variety of groups of subjects and developspecifications/standards, for example, for males aged from...  to..., smokersor non-smokers of cigars (tobacco pipes, cigarettes or cigarettes withcardboard holder) with high (low) concentration of nicotine, aboriginals(emigrants), white, dark- or yellow-skinned, etc. It would require enormousefforts and still would not be justified, since the world is continuallychanging and one would have to do this work every time again. It’s all the moreso impossible to develop statistical specifications/standards for infinitenumber of groups of subjects in the course of dynamic processes, for example,physical activities and at different phases of pathological processes, etc.,when the number of values of each separate parameter is quite large. When thesystem’s details are completely uncertain, although the variants of thesystem’s reaction and their probabilistic weighting factorsare known,statistical mathematicalmodel of system arises. Inaccuracy of these modelsis of fundamental character and is stipulated by probabilistic character offunctions. In process of studying of the system details of its structure becomeapparent. As a result an empirical model emerges in the form of a formula. Thedegree of accuracy of this model is higher than that of statistical, but it isstill of probabilistic character. When all details of the system are known andthe mechanism of its operation is entirely exposed the deterministicmathematical modelappears in the form of the formula. Its accuracy is only stipulated by the accuracyof measurement methods. Application of statistical mathematical models isjustified at the first stages of any cognition process when details ofphenomenon in question are unknown. At this stage of cognition a “black box”concept is introduced when we know nothing about the structure of this “box”,but we do know its reaction to certain influences. Types of its reactions arerevealed by means of statistical models and thereafter, with the help of logic,details of its systems and their interaction are becoming exposed. When allthat is revealed, deterministic models come into play and the evaluation of thesystems’ functions is made not on the basis of tabular data, but on the basisof due curve of the system function. Due curve of a system’s function is a duerange of values of function of the given concrete system in the given concretesubject, with its load varying from minimum to maximum. Nowadays due curves arescarcely used, instead extreme minimum and maximum due values are applied. Forexample, due ventilation oflungs in quiescence state and in the state of peak load. For this purposemaximum load is given to individuals in homotypic groups and pulmonaryventilation in quiescence state and in the state of peak load is measured.Following statistical processing due values of pulmonary ventilation for theconditions of rest and peak load are obtained. The drawback of extreme duevalues consists in that this method is of little usefor the patients. Not all patients are able tonormally perform a stress test and discontinue it long before due maximum valueis achieved. The patient, for example, could have shown due pulmonaryventilation, but he/she just stopped the load test too early. How can thefunction be estimated then? It can be only done by means of due curve. If theactual curve coincides with the due curve, the function is normal at the sitewhere coincidence occurred. If actual curve is lower than the due one, it is alagging curve. Inclined straight line consisting of vertical pieces of line isthe due curve. Vertical dotted straight line is the boundary of transition ofnormal or lagging function into the inadequate line (a plateau). The drawbackof due curves is that in order to build them it is necessary to usedeterministic mathematical models of systems which number is currently verylow. They are built on the basis of knowledge of cause-and-effect relationshipbetween the system elements. These models are the most complex, labor-consumingand for the time being are in many cases impracticable. Therefore, these modelsare scarcely used inthe sphere of applied medicine and this is the reason for the absenceof analytical medicine. But they are the mostaccurate and show what parameters should be present in the given concretesubject at any point of time. Only the use of due curve functions allows forevaluating actual curves properly. The difference of the deterministicmathematical models from statistical tables consists in that in the first casedue values for the concrete given subject (the individual’s due values) areobtained, while in the second case due values for the group of persons alikethe given subject are developed. The possibility of building deterministicmodels depends only on the extent of our knowledge of executive elements of thesystem and laws of their interaction. Calculation of probability of a thrownstone hitting a designated target can be drawn as an example of statisticalstandard scale in the mechanic. After a series of throws, having made certainstatistical calculations it is possible to predict that the next throw withsuch degree of probability will hit the mark. If deterministic mathematicalmodel (ballistics) is used for this purpose, then knowing the stone weight, theforce and the angle of throw, viscosity of air, speed and direction of wind,etc., it is possible to calculate and predict precisely the place where a stonewill fall. “Give me a spot of support and I will up-end the globe”, saidArchimedes, having in view that he had deterministic mathematical model ofmechanics of movements. Any living organism is a very complex andmulti-component system. It’s impossible to account all parameters and theirinterrelations, therefore statistical mathematical models cannot describeadequately the condition of systems of organism. However, joint use ofstatistical and deterministic models allows, with sufficient degree ofaccuracy, to evaluate parameters of living system. In the lapse of time inprocess of accumulation of knowledge statistical models are replaced bydeterministic. Engineering/technology is muchsimpler than biology and medicine because the objects of its knowledge arerather simple systems (machinery/vehicles) constructed by a man. Therefore, itsdevelopment and process of replacement of statistical mathematical models fordeterministic ones has made great strides as compared with medicine.Nevertheless, on the front line of any science including technical, where thereis still no clarity about many things and still a lot has to be learnt,statistics stands its ground as it helps to reveal elements of systems and lawsof their interaction. What do we examine the subject and conduct estimation offunctions of the systems of his organism for? Do we do it in order to know towhich extent he/she differs from the homothetic subject? Probably, yes. But,perhaps, the main objective of examination of a patient is to determine whetherhe/she can normally exist without medical aid and if not, what kind of helpmight be provided. Pathological process is a process of destruction of some SFUof the organism’s systems in which one of the key roles is played by a viciouscircle. However, vicious circles start to actuate only if certain degree ofload is present. They do not emerge below this level and do not destroy SFU,i.e. no pathological process emerges and no illness occurs below a certainthreshold of loading (mechanical, thermal, toxic, etc.). Hence, having defineda threshold of the onset of the existence of vicious circle, we can learn theupper “ceiling” of quality of life of the given patient. If his/her livingconditions (tempo of life) allow him/her not to exceed this “ceiling”, itsuggests that the given subject will not be in poor health under theseconditions. If the tempo of life requires more than the capacity of his/herorganism may provide, he/she will be in poor health. In order not to be illhe/she should stint himself/herself in some actions. To limit oneself inactions means to reduce one’s living standard, to deprive oneself of thepossibility to undertake certain actions which others can do or which he/shedid earlier, but which are now inaccessible to the given patient on the groundsof restricted resources of his/her organism because of defects. If theserestrictions have to do only with pleasure/delight, such as, for example,playing football, this may be somehow sustained. But if these restrictions haveto do with conditions of life of the patient it has to be somehow taken intoaccount. For example, if his/her apartment is located on the ground floor, thento provide for quite normal way of life his/her maximum consumption of О2should be, e.g., 1000 ml a minute. But what one should do if he/she lives,e.g., on the third floor and in the house with no elevator, and to be able toget to the third floor on foot he/sheshould be able to take up 2000 ml/min О2,while he/she is able to uptake take up only 1000 ml/min О2,?The patient would then have a problem which can be solved only by means of somekind of health care actions or by changing conditions of life. In clinicalpractice we almost do not assess the patient’s functional condition from thestand point of its correspondence to living conditions. Of course, it istrivial and we guess it, but for the time being there are no objective criteriaand corresponding methodology for the evaluation of conformity of thefunctional reserves of the patient’s organism with the conditions of his/herlife activity. Ergonomics is impossible without systemic analysis. Majorcriterion of sufficiency of the organism’s functions in the given conditions oflife is the absence of the occurrence of vicious circles (see below) at thegiven level of routine existential loads. If vicious circles arise in the givenconditions, it is necessary either to somehow strengthen the function of theorganism’s systems or the patient will have to change his/her living conditionsso that vicious circles do not work, or otherwise he/she will always be in poorhealth with all the ensuing consequences. So, we need not only to know due minimumor maximum values which we may obtain using statistical mathematical models. Wealso need to know the patient’s everyday due values of the same parametersspecific for the given concrete patient so that his/her living conditions donot cause the development of pathological processes and destroy his/herorganism. To this effect we need deterministic mathematical models.
Stabilizationsystems and proportional systems. There exist a great number of types ofvarious systems. But stabilization systems and proportional systems are ofspecial importance for us. In respect of the first one the result of actionalways remains the same (stable), it does not depend on the force of externalinfluence, but on the command. For example, рН of blood should be always equalto 7.4, blood pressure to 120/80 mm Hg, etc., (homeostasis systems) regardlessof external influences. In respect of the second one the result of actiondepends on the force of external influence under any specific law designated bythe command and is proportional to it. For example, the more physical work weperform the more О2 weshould consume and excrete СО2.Stabilization system uses two receptors, “Х” and “Y”. The “Х” receptor is usedto start up the system depending on the presence of external influence, whilethe “Y” receptor is used for the measurement of the result of action. Thecommand (the task specifying the value of the result of action) is entered tothe command entry point of the stabilization system’s control block.Stabilization system should fulfill this task, i.e. support (stabilize) theresult of action at the designated level irrespective of the force of externalinfluence. Stability of the result of action is ensured by that the “database”of the control block contains the ratios/correlations of the number of activeSFU and forces of external influence and is sustained according to the NFlogic: if the result of action has increased, it is necessary to reduce it, andif it has decreased it’s necessary to increase it. For this purpose the controlblock should contain DPC and NF. Hence, the elementary control block (DPC) isnot suitable for stabilization systems. At least simple control block whichcontains NF as well is necessary. In stabilization system the result of actionof the system up to vertical dotted straight line is stable (normal function,the curve goes horizontally). Beyond the dotted straight line the function goesdown (increases), stabilization was disturbed (insufficiency of function). Withproportional system, its function increases (goes down) until vertical dottedstraight line proportionally to the external influence (normal function).Beyond the dotted straight line the function does not vary (it entered thesaturation phase, transited to a plateau condition — insufficient function).The measuring element in stabilization system continually measures the resultof action of the system and communicates it to the control block which comparesit to the preset result. In case of discrepancy of the result of action withthe task this block makes decision on those or other actions to be taken andforces the executive elements to operate so that this divergence hasdisappeared. External influence may vary within various ranges, but the resultof action should remain stable and be equal to the preset result. The systemspends its resources to do it. If the resources are exhausted, stabilizationsystem ceases to stabilize the result of action and starting from this pointthe onset of its insufficiency occurs. One of stabilization examples is stellarrotation speed in vacuum. If the radius of the star reduces, its rotationalspeed will increase and centrifugal forces will amplify, thus scaling up itsradius and slowing down its rotational speed. If the radius of the star scalesup, the entire process will go in a reverse order. A figure skater regulatesthe speed of rotational pirouettes he/she performs on the skating-rink based onthe same principle. Proportional system should also use both “Х” and “Y”receptors. One of them measures the incoming influence, while another onemeasures the result of action of the system. The command (the task as to whatthe proportion between external influence and the result of action should be)is input to the entry point of the control block. It is for this reason thatsuch systems are called proportional. External influence may change within thevarying range. But the control block should adjust the performance of theexecutive elements so that the “prescribed” (preset by the directive) proportionbetween external influence and the result of action is maintained. Examples ofproportional systems are, for example, amplifiers of electric signals,mechanical levers, sea currents (the more the water in the ocean is warmed up,the more intensive is the flow in the Gulf Stream), atmospheric phenomena, etc.So, the examples of stabilization and proportional systems are found in anymedium, but not only in biological systems.
Active andpassive systems. Passive systems are those which do not exspend energy fortheir actions. Active systems are those which do exspend energy for theiractions. However, as it was repeatedly underlined, any action of any systemrequires expenditure of energy. Any action, even the most insignificant, isimpossible without expenditure of energy, because, as it has already beenmentioned, any action is always the interaction between systems or itselements. Any interaction represents communication between the systems or theirelements which requires expenditure of energy for the creation thereof.Therefore any action requires energy consumption. Hence, all systems, includingpassive, consume energy. The difference between active and passive systems isonly in the source of energy. How does the passive system operate then? If thesystem is in the state of equilibrium with the environment and no influence isexerted upon it the system should not perform any actions. Once it does notperform any actions, it does not consume energy. It is passive until the momentit starts to operate and only then it will start to consume energy. Thebalanced state ofa pencil is stipulated by the balanced pushing (pressure) of springs onto apencil. The springs are not simply incidental groups of elements (a set ofatoms and molecules), but they are passive systems with NF loops and executiveelements at molecular level (intermolecular forces in steel springs) which seekto balance forces of intermolecular connections/bonds which is manifested inthe form of tension load of the springs. Since in case of the absence ofexternal influence no actions are performed by the system, there is no energyconsumption either, and the system passively waits for the onset of externalinfluence. Both types of systems have one and the same goal: to keep a pencilin vertical position. In passive systems this function is carried out bysprings (passive SFU, A and B) and air columns encapsulated/encased in rubbercans (passive SFU, D). The SFU store (use) energy during external influence(pushing a pencil with a finger squeezes the springs). In active system (C) thesame function is achieved for at the expense of airflows which always collapse.These airflows create motor fans (active SFU) which spend energy earlierreserved, for example, in accumulators. Once these airflows areencapsulated/encased in rubber cylinders they will not collapse any more andwill exist irrespective of fans, while carrying out the same function. But nowit represents a passive system (D). Now external influence occurs and thepencil has diverged aside. The springs would immediately seek to return apencil to the former position, i.e. the system starts to operate. Where does ittake energy for the actions from? This energy was brought by the externalinfluence in the form of kinetic energy of pushing by a finger which hascompressed (stretched) the springs and they have reserved this energy in theform of potential energy of compression (stretching). As soon as externalinfluence (pushing by a finger) has ceased, potential energy of the compressedsprings turns to kinetic energy of straightening thereof and it returns apencil back in the vertical balanced position. External influence enhances internalenergy of the system which is used for the performance of the system. Theinfluence causes surplus of internal energy of the system which results in thereciprocal action of the system. In the absence of influence no surplus of thesystem’s internal energy is available which results in the absence of action.External influence brings in the energy in the system which is used to producereaction to this influence. Functions of springs may be performed by airflowscreated by fans located on a pencil. In order to “build” airflows surplus ofenergy of the “fans – pencil” system is used which is also brought in from theoutside, but stored for use at the right time (for example, gasoline in thetank or electricity in accumulator). Such system would be active because itwill use its internal energy, rather than that of external influence. Thedifference between airflows and springs consists in that the airflows consistof incidental groups of molecules of air (not systems) moving in one direction.Amongst these elements there are executive elements (SFU, air molecules), butthere is no control block which could construct a springs-type system out ofthem, i.e. provide the existence of airflows as stable, separate andindependent bodies (systems). These airflows are continually created by fanpropellers and as they have no control block of their own they always collapseby themselves. Suppose that we construct some kind of a system which willensure prevention of the airflows from collapse, let’s say, encase them inrubber cylinders, they then may exist independently of fans. But in this casethe system of stabilization of the pencil’s vertical position will shift fromthe active category to the passive. Hence, both active and passive systemsconsume energy. However, the passive ones consume the external energy broughtin by external influence, while the active ones would use their own internalenergy. One may argue that internal energy, say, of myocyte is still theexternal energy brought in to a cell from the outside, e.g. in the form ofglucose. It is true, and moreover, any object contains internal energy which atsome stage was external. And we probably may even know the source of thisenergy, which is the energy of the Big Bang. Some kind of energy was spent onceand somewhere for the creation of an atom, and this energy may be extractedtherefrom somehow or other. Such brought-in internal energy is present in anyobject of our World and it is impossible to find any other object in it whichwould contain exclusively its own internal energy which was not brought in byanything or ever from the outside. Energy exchange occurs every time thesystems interact. But passive systems do not spend their internal energy in theprocess of their performance because they “are not able” of doing it, they onlyuse the energy of the external influence, whereas active systems can spendtheir internal energy. The passive systemis the thorax which performs passive exhalation and many other systems ofliving organism.
Evolution of systems.Complex control block. For the most efficient achievement of the goal thesystem always should carry out its action in the optimum way and produce theresult of action in the right place and time. The system’s control block solvesboth problems: where and when it is necessary to actuate. In order to be ableto operate at the right place it should have a notion of space and thecorresponding sensors delivering information on the situationin the given space. In turn, the time of delivery ofthe result of action with simple systems includes two periods: the time spentfor decision-making (from the moment of onset of external influence till themoment of SFU activation) and the time spent for theSFU actuation (from the moment of the beginning ofSFU activation till the moment the result of action is achieved). The timespent for the decision-making depends on duration of cycles of the system’sperformance which issue was discussed above. The time spent for theSFU actuation depends on the SFU properties such as,for example, the speed of biochemical reactions in live cells or the speed ofreduction of sarcomere in muscular cells which to a considerable degree dependson the speed of power consumption by these SFU and the speed of restoration ofenergy potential after these SFU have been actuated. These speeds are basicallythe characteristics inherent in SFU, but are also determined by service systemswhich serve these SFU. They may also be controlled by control block. Metabolic,hormonal, prostaglandin and vegetative neural regulation in living organism isintended just for this purpose, i.e. to change to some extent the speeds ofbiochemical reactions in tissue cells and conditions of delivery of energyresources by means of regulation of (service) respiratory and blood circulationsystems. But the notion of “at the right time” means not only the time ofactuation in response to the external influence. In many cases there is a needfor the actuation to start before external influence is exerted. However, thesystem with simple control block starts to perform only after the onset ofexternal influence. It is a very significant (catastrophic) drawback for livingsystems, because if the organism is being influenced upon, it may mean that itis already being eaten. It would be better if the system started to performbefore the onset of this external influence. If the external situation isthreatening by the onset of dangerous influence, the optimal actions of thesystem may protect it from such influence. For this purpose it is necessary toknow the condition of external situation and to be able to see, estimate andknow what actions need to be undertaken in certain cases. In other words, it isnecessary to exercise control in order to forestall real result of action priorto external influence. In order to perform these actions it should containspecial elements which can do it and which it does not have. Simple controlblock can exercise control only on the basis of mismatch(divergence/discrepancy) of real result of action with the preset one, becausethe system with simple control block cannot “know” anything about externalsituation until the moment this situation starts to influence upon the system.The knowledge of external situation is inaccessible to simple control block.Therefore, simple control block always starts to perform with delay. It may besometimes too late to control. If the system (the living organism) does notknow the external situation, it may not be able to make projection as to whatthe situation is and catch the victim or forestall encounter with a predator.Thus, simple control block cannot make decisions on the time and place ofactuation. For this purpose control block needs a special analyzer which candetermine and analyze external situation and depending on various external orinternal conditions elaborate the decision on its actions. This analyzer shouldhave a notion of time and space in which certain situation is deployed, as wellas corresponding informants (sensors with communication lines between them andthis special analyzer) which provide information on the external situation. Theanalyzer-informant has nothing of this kind. When the hunter shoots at a flyingduck, it shoots not directly at the bird, but he shoots with anticipation as heknows that before the bullet reaches a duck it (the duck) will move forward.The hunter, being a system intended for shooting a duck, should see the entiresituation at a distance, estimate it correctly, make the projection as towhether it makes sense to shoot, and he should act, i.e. shoot at a duck, onlyon the basis of such analysis. He cannot wait until the duck touches him (untilhis “X” is actuated) so that he then can shoot at it. In order to do so heshould first single out a duck as the object he needs from other unnecessaryobjects, then measure a distance to a duck, even if it would be “by eye”. Hedoes it by means of  special (visual) analyzer which is neither “X” nor “Y”sensor, but is an additional “C” sensor (additional special remote receptorswith afferent paths). Such receptors can be any receptors which are able ofreceiving information at a distance (haemo-, termo-, photoreceptors, etc). Thehunter’s visual analyzer includes photosensitive rods and cone cells in the eye(photoreceptors), optic nerves and various cerebral structures. He should beable to distinguish all surrounding subjects, classify them and single out aduck against the background of these subjects and locate a duck (situationalevaluation). In addition, by means of reciprocal innervation he should positionhis body in such a way that the gun is directed precisely to the place in frontof the duck (forestalling/ anticipation) to achieve the goal, i.e. to hit theduck. He does all this by means of his additional analyzer which is theanalyzer-classifier. Simple control block of systems with NF does not containsuch additional analyzer-classifier. That is why it is called “simple”. It hasonly analyzer-informant which feels external influence by means of “X” sensoronly when this influence has already begun; it measures the result of action bymeans of NF (“Y” sensor) only when this result is already evident and analyzesthe information received after the result of action is already produced,because it takes time for the NF to activate. In addition, theanalyzer-informant contains only “database” in which the table of due values ofcontrollable parameters (data) which need to be compared to the data ofmeasurements of external influence and results of action “is written down” inexplicit or implicit form. It elaborates decisions on the basis of thesecomparisons. Its algorithm of control is based only on the comparison of thegiven measurements carried out by “X” and “Y” with the “database”. If themismatch is equal to “M” it is necessary to perform, for example, less action,whereas if it is equal to “N”, then more action should be done. Simple controlblock cannot change the decision as to the alteration of the level ofcontrollable parameter, time of actuation and the NF intensity, since it doesnot have appropriate information. To perform these actions it should containspecial elements which can provide it with such information. What does it needfor this purpose? In order to make a decision the given block should “know” thesituation around the system which can cause certain external influence. Forthis purpose it should first of all “see”it, i.e. have sensors which can receive informationat a distance and without direct contact (remote “C” informant). In addition,it should contain a special analyzer-classifier which can classify externalenvironment and single out from it not all the objects and situations, butthose only which may affect the implementation of its goals. Besides, it shouldhave notions of space and time. The play of fish and even dolphin shoals in thevicinity of floating combatant shipcannot affectits movement to target destination. But the “game”of the enemy submarine in its vicinity may substantially affect the fulfillmentof its task. The combatant ship should be able to “see” all its surroundingsand, based on the external situation, single out from all possible situationsonly those that may create such external influences which can prevent it fromthe implementation of its objective. For this purpose it should “know” possiblesituational scenarios which may affect the achievement of the goal of the givensystem. To this effect it should have “knowledge base” containing thedescription of all those situations which can affect the implementation of theobjective. If its “knowledge base” does not have the description of certainobjects or situations it cannot distinguish (classify) an object or a situationand can not make correct decision. The “knowledge base” should storeinformation not on the parameters of external influence which are stored in the“database”, but on the situations around (beyond) the system which may lead tospecific external influence. The “knowledge base” may be introduced in thecontrol block at the moment of its “birth” or later together with the command,at that it is being introduced in the given block by the systems external inrelation to the given system. If its “knowledge base” does not contain thedescription of the given situation, it can not distinguish and classify it. The“knowledge base” contains the description of various situations and thesignificance of these situations for the system. Knowing the importance of realsituation for the achievement of the goal the system can make projection andtake decision on its actions depending on the projection made. In addition tothe “knowledge base” it should have “decision base”– a set of ready/stored/decisions that are made by the control block depending onthe situation and the projection, (authorized decisions,instructions) in which appropriate decisions are stored that need to be made inrespective situations. If it does not have ready decisions regarding externalsituation it cannot perform its objective. Having identified a situation andelaborated the decision, it gives a command to the analyzer-informant whichactivates a stimulator in an appropriate way. Thus, the control block is beingcomplexificated on account of inclusion in its structure of the “C” informantand the analyzer-classifier containing the “knowledge base”and the “base of decisions”. That is why suchcontrol blocks are called “complex”. The more complex the decision-making blockis, the more precise decision may be chosen. Consequently, complex controlblock includes both the analyzer-informant which has “database
 and the analyzer-classifier which has the “knowledge base” and the “decisionbase”. Not any living cell has analyzer — classifier. Animate/organic/ natureis classified under two major groups: flora and fauna. Plants, as well as manyother living forms of animate nature, such as corals and bacteria, do notpossess remote sensors, although in some cases it may seem that plants,nevertheless, do have such sensors. For example, sunflowers turn their headstowards the sun as if phototaxis is inherent in them. But they actually turntheir heads not towards the light, but towards the side wherefrom their bodiesget more heated, and heat comes from the side wherefrom the light comes. Heatis felt locally by a sunflower’s body. It does not have special infra-redsensors. Photosynthesis process is not a process of phototaxis. Hence, plantsare systems with simple control block. In spite of the fact that there areplants with a very complex structure that are even capable to feed on subjectsof fauna, their control block is still simple and reacts only to directcontact. For example, a sundew feeds on insects; it can entice them, paste themto its external stomach and even contract its valves. It’s a predator and inthis sense it is akin to a wolf, a shark or a jellyfish. It can do variety ofactions like an animal, but it can only do it after the insect alights on it. Asundew cannot chase its victims because it does not see them (remote sensorsare not available). Whatever alights on it, even a small stone, it will do allnecessary actions and try to digest it because it does not haveanalyzer-classifier. This is why a sundew is a plant, but not an animal.Animate cells, including unicellular forms, even such as amoeba or infusoriatypes, are systems with complexcontrol blocks since they possess at least one of spatial analyzers –chemotaxis. It is the presence of remote sensors that differs a cell of ananimal from any objects of flora, in which such sensors controls are notpresent. Therefore the control block is a determinant of what kind of naturethe given living object belongs to. The jellyfish is not an alga, but an animalbecause it has chemotaxis. Remote analyzer gives an idea about the space inwhich it has to move. That is why plants stay put, while animals move in space.Simple control block including only the analyzer-informant is a determinant ofthe world of minerals and plants. We will see below where the differencebetween the mineral and vegetative worlds/natures lies. Complex control blockincluding the analyzer-classifier is a fauna determinant anyway. An amoeba isthe same kind of hunter as a wolf, a shark or a man. It feeds on infusorians.To catch an infusorian it should know where the latter is and should be able tomove. It cannot see the victim at a distance, but it can feel it by itschemical sense organs and seek to catch it as it has chemotaxis, possibly thefirst of the remote sensor mechanisms. But in addition to chemotaxis the amoebashould also have a notion (even primitive) of space in which it exists and inwhich it should move in a coordinated and task-oriented mannerto catch an infusorian. In addition, it should beable to single out an infusorian from other objects which it can encounter onits way. Its analyzer-classifier is much simpler than, for example, that of awolf or a shark because it does not have organs of sight and hearing and neuralstructures at all, but it can classify external situation. It has complexcontrol block comprising the “C” informant, and that is why an amoeba is not aplant, but an animal. Since control blocks may be of any degree of complexity,reflexes may be of any degree of complexity, too, from elementary axon reflexesto the reflexes including the cerebral cortex performance (instincts andconditioned reflexes). The number of reflexes of living organism is enormousand there exist specific reflexes for each system of the organism. Moreover,the organism is not only a complex system in itself, but due to its complexityit has a possibility to build additional, temporary/transient/ systemsnecessary at the given point of time for some specific concrete occasion. Forexample, lamentation system is a temporary system which the organism builds fora short time interval. The lamentation system’s control block is the example ofcomplex control block. The purpose of lamentation is to show one’s sufferingand be pitied. This system includes, in the capacity of composite executiveelements, other systems (subsystems) that are located sufficiently far fromeach other both in space and in terms of functions (lacrimal glands,respiratory muscles, alveoli and pulmonary bronchial tubes, vocal chords, mimicmuscles, etc.). At first the external situation is identified and in case ofneed lamentation reflex (complex reflex, an instinct) is actuated under thecertain program, which includes control of lifting up one’s voice up to acertain timbre (control over the respiratory muscles and vocal chords), sobbing(a series of intermittent  sighs), lacrimation /excretion of tears/, specificfacial expression, etc. All these remote elements are consolidated by thecomplex control block in a uniform system, i.e. lamentation system, with veryconcrete and specific purpose to show one’s sufferings to the other system. Thelamentation reflex can be realized at all levels of nervous system, startingfrom the higher central cerebral structures, including vegetative neuralsystem, subcortex and up to cerebral cortex. But we are examining only child’sweeping which is realized in neural structures not higher than subcortex level(instinctive crying). After the purpose has been achieved (sufferings have beenexplicitly demonstrated, and whether or not the child was pitied will be foundout later) the reflex is brought to a stop, this complex control blockdisappears and the system disintegrates into the components which now continuefunctioning as part of other systems of organism. Lamentation system disappears(it is scattered). Whence the control block (at subcortex level) knows that itis necessary to cry now, but it is not necessary to cry at any other moment?For this purpose it identifies a situation (singles it out and classifies). Theanalyzer-classifier is engaged in it. Its “knowledge base” is laid down in subcortexfrom birth (the instincts). Simple control block cannot perform such actions.All actions of the systems controlled by elementary and simple control blockswould be automatic. Biological analogues of elementary control block are theaxon reflexes working under the “all-or-none” law; those of simple controlblocks are unconditional (innate, instinctive) reflexes when certain automatic,but graduated reaction occurs in response to certain external influence. Simplecontrol block would be adapting the system’s actions better than the elementaryone because it takes account of not only external influence, but the result ofaction of the system which has occurred in response to this external influenceas well. But it cannot identify a situation. Complex control block can performsuch actions. It reacts not to external influence, but to certain externalsituation which can exert certain external influence. Biological analogues ofcomplex control block are complex reflexes or instincts. During pre-natal developmentthe “knowledge” of possible situations “is laid down” into the brain of a fetus(the “knowledge base”). The volume of this knowledge is immense. A chicken canrun immediately after it hardly hatches from egg. A crocodile, a shark or asnake become predators right after birth, i.e. they know and are able of doingeverything that is required for this purpose. It speaks of the fact that theyhave sufficient inborn “knowledge base” and “base of decisions” for thispurpose. In such cases we say that animal has instincts. Thus, the system withcomplex control block is the object which can react to certain externalsituation in which this influence may be exerted. But it can react only tofixed (finite) number of external situationswhich description is contained in its “knowledgebase” and it has a finite number of decisions on these situations whichdescription is contained in its “base of decisions”. In order to identifyexternal situation it has the “C” informant and the analyzer-classifier.  Inother respects it is similar to the system with simple control block. It canalso react to certain external influence and its reaction is stipulated by typeand number of its SFU. The result of action of the system is also graduated.The number of gradations is defined by the number of executive SFU in thesystem. It also has the analyzer-informantwith the “database”, DPC (the “X” informant) and NF(the “Y” informant), which control the system through the stimulator (efferentpaths). There are no analogues with complex control block in inorganic/abiocoen, inanimate/ nature. Biological analogues of systems with complexcontrol block are all animals, from separate cells to animals with highlydeveloped nervous system including cerebrum and remote sense organs, such assight, hearing, sense of smell, but in which it is impossible to developreflexes to new situations, for example, in insects. The analogues of the “C”informant are all “remote” receptors: eyesight (or its photosensitiveanalogues in inferior animals), hearing and sense ofsmell. The analogues of analyzer-classifier are, for example, visual,acoustical, gustatory and olfactory analyzers located in the subcortex. Visual,acoustical, gustatory and olfactory analyzers located in the cerebral cortexare anyway referred to analyzers-correlators.
Self-trainingcontrol block. No brain is able to hold enormous “knowledge bases” onall possible conditions of the entire world around.Therefore, one of the reasons why each species of animals occupies correspondingbiosphere niche is the necessity to limit the volume of “knowledge base”.Antelope knows what the seal does not, and vice versa. In each separateecological niche the quantity of possible situations is much less, than in allecological niches all together. Therefore, relatively small volume of necessaryknowledge is required in separate ecological niches. However, if one tries tosomehow input /in the brain/ all the information currently available onall the situations which have already been occurringin the world, it would not help either, because the world alters continuallyand many situations have never ever arose. The “knowledge base” basically maynot have information on what has not yet happened in the world. Naturally,the “base of decisions” cannot contain all the possible options of decisionseither. “Genetic knowledge” contains only what the ancestors of animals haveexperienced. They materially cannot have knowledge of what is going to happen.When new situation arises, the system cannot identify, classify it and makedecision on it. Even if this situation will occur repeatedly, if the system isunable of self-training it will every time fail to correctly identify asituation because such situations are not contained in its “knowledge base”. Theant runs along the fence, going up and down, and cannot guess that it ispossible to easily bypass the fence. Millions years ago, when its geneticallyinput “knowledge base” was formed the fences were non-existent. If one tries tosink a thread on the web the spider will leave this web and will weave a newone because it is not familiar with such situation and it does not know andcannot learn that it is possible to make a hole in a web so that the threaddoes not interfere. All this is due to the fact that insects as a class ofanimals are not capable of learning anything. They may be perfect buildersamazing us with their sophisticated and fine webs, nests and other creations oftheir work. But they can only build based on their innate knowledge. They do have“knowledge base” (instincts), but they do not have cerebral structures(elements of control block) capable of supplementing their own “knowledge base”with new existential situations. They do not have reflexes on newstimuli/exciters/. To be able to identify and classify new situations thecontrol block should be able to enter the descriptions of these situations inits “knowledge base”. But at first it should be able to identify that it is acompletely new situation, for example, by comparing it to what already existsin its “knowledge base”. Then it should identify the importance (the valueworth) of this particular situation for the achievement of its goal. If thereis no any correlation between the new situation and the fulfillment of the goalof the system, there is no sense in remembering this situation, otherwise thebrain “will be crammed with trash”. By singling out and classifying externalsituations (identifying them) and finding interrelation (correlation) betweenthese situations, by decisions made and the achievement of the goal of thesystem the control block learns to develop appropriate decisions. Thus, theself-training decision-making block continually supplements its “knowledgebase” and “base of decisions”. But under the conservation law nothing occurs byitself. In order for the control block to be able to perform the above actionsit should have appropriate elements. The major element of the kind is theanalyzer-correlator. It is the basis whereon reflex on new stimulus/exciter or anew situation may emerge. Its task is to detect a new situation, identify thatit is new, determine the degree of correlation between this situation and itsown goal. If there is no correlation between this new situation andimplementation of the goal by the system, there is no sense in remembering andloading its limited “database” memory. If the degree of correlation is high itis necessary to enter this situation in the “knowledge base” and develop adecision on the choice of own actions for the achievement of its own goal andthereafter to define whether there is correlation between the decision made andthe achievement of the goal. If there is no correlation between the decisionmade and the fulfillment of the goal by the system it is necessary to arrive atother solution and again determine the correlation between the decision madeand the achievement of the goal. And it should be repeated in that way untilsufficiently high correlation between the decision made and the achievement ofgoal is obtained. Only afterwards the correct computed decision should beentered into the “base of decisions”. This is the essence of self-training.Only the analyzer-correlator enables self-training process. As a matter offact, the system’s self-training means the emergence of reflexes to newstimuli/exciters or situations. Consequently, these are only possible when thecontrol block contains analyzer-correlator. Biological analogue of theanalyzer-correlator is the cerebral cortex. The presence of cortex determinesthe possibility of emergence of reflexes to new situations. Cerebral cortex isonly present in animals which represent sufficiently high level of development.Non-biological analogues of systems with such self-training control block areunknown to us. Computer self-training systems are built by man and the processof self-training at the end of the day always involves human cerebral cortex.There exist various so-called “intellectual” systems, but full-fledgedintelligence is only inherent in human being. Let us specify that there are noself-training systems, but there are their self-training control blocks,because executive elements cannot be trained in anything. There may be systemswith simple executive elements, but with control blocks of varying complexity.In order for the control block to be a self-training structure it shouldcontain three types of analyzers: the analyzer-informant with “database”; theanalyzer-classifier with the “knowledge base” and “base of decisions” (which isable of classifying external situation on the basis of the information from the“C” informant); the analyzer-correlator (able of identifying the interrelation– correlation between various external situations and the resultsof actions of the given system and transferring theknowledge obtained and decisions to the analyzer-classifier to enter them inthe “knowledge base” and the “base of decisions”). Thus, the system withself-training control block is an object which can learn to distinguish newexternal influences and situations in which such influence may be exerted. Forthis purpose it has the analyzer-correlator. In other respects it is similar tothe systems with complexcontrol block. It can respond to specific external influence and externalsituation and its reaction would be stipulated by type and number of its SFU.The result of action of the system is also graduated. The number of gradationsis determined by the number of executive SFU in the system. It also hasanalyzer-qualifier with “knowledge base” and “base of decisions” and theanalyzer-informant with“database”, DPC (the “X” informant) and NF (the “Y” informant), which operatethe system through the stimulator (efferent paths). In inorganic/inanimatenature there are no analogues of systems with self-training control blocks.Biological analogues of systems with complex control block are all animals withsufficiently developed nervous system in which it is possible to developreflexes to new situations (should not be confused with conditioned reflexes).The analogue of analyzer-correlator is only the cerebral cortex.
Signalingsystems. The appearance in the control block of the analyzer-correlator enabledthe possibility to enhance its personal experience by self-training andcontinually update its “knowledge base” and “base of decisions”. But it cannottransfer its experience to other systems. Personal experience is limitedhowsoever an individual would try to expand it. In any case collectiveexperience is much broader than that of an individual. In order for one individualto be able to transfer his/her experience to other individual separate deviceis needed enabling “downloading” the information from one “knowledge base” toanother. For example, the antelope knows that the cheetah is very dangerousbecause it feeds on antelopes and wishes to transfer this knowledge to itscalf. How can it be done? For example, the antelope can simulate a situationplaying a performance in which all characters are real objects, i.e. it shouldexpose itself to cheetah so that the calf could see it to gain its ownexperience by the example of its mum. The calf will see the situation and newreflex to new situation will be developed and the calf will be on its guardagainst the cheetahs. Of course, it is an absurd way as it does not solve theproblem of survival. Anyway, only one out of the twoantelopes will survive. So, what can be done in principle? How oneself-training systemcan transfer its individual experience to other self-training system? It isnecessary to simulate a situation by making a show in which all characters areabstract objects and replace real objects with others, which are conferredconventional connection/link between them and the real objects (abstracting ofobjects). Such abstract objects are prearranged signals. The systems “agree”(stipulate a condition) that if such-and-such signal occurs, it will speak ofsomething agreed upon. It is the development of conditioned reflex that representsreplacement of real influence for abstract influence. It is a so-called firstsignaling system which is based on conditioned reflexes. The appearance ofcheetah causes producing a panic sound by an antelope. Consequently such soundis associated with the appearance of cheetah and it becomes an abstractsubstitute of cheetah itself, i.e. prearranged signal. Any motional signal maybe an abstract substitute of danger, i.e. raising or dropping of tail, specialjumps, producing special sounds, mimicry, etc. These motional signals affectthe systems in the herd and based on this signal they may know about a dangernearby. In other words, there was a replacement of real external influence bysome abstract thing associated with this object. Abstracting of real action byits symbol (vocal, motional, etc) took place. For such abstracting the controlblock needs to have an additional device – the analyzer-abstractor which shouldcontain the “base of abstraction” (“base of prearranged signals”). The “base ofabstraction” contains a set of descriptions of certain signals which areperceived as conditional situations and correspond to other certain situations.A prearranged signal is the appearance of some object or movement (situationalsignal) which usually does not appear in common routine situation. Theoccurrence of prearranged signal does not in itself affect in any way theachievement of the goals by the systems. For example, raising and fluffing outa tail does not influence in any way neither food intake, nor running, etc. Butthe occurrence of a signal is connected with the occurrence of such situationwhich can affect the achievement of goals by the systems. Given the ability toabstract from concrete situations, then not even seeing a cheetah, but havingseen the lifted tails, may be conducive to guessing that a cheetah is nearby.Abstracting of real external influence by vocal or motional symbol is performedby the first signalingsystem. It supplements the analyzer-correlator and operates similarly to it, i.e.is self-training. Unlike the “knowledge base” the “base of abstraction” of anewly born system is empty. It is being filled out during the system’s lifetimeon account of possibility of self-training, and the newly obtained knowledge isthen downloaded in the “knowledge base”. Sometimes behavior of animals seems tobe indicative of their possibility to transfer the information from one toanother even before the occurrence of the respective situation. For example,some lions go to an ambush, others start driving the antelopes, so they kind offoresee the situation. But they only know about ambush possibilities based ontheir own experience. They do not have other means of transfer of suchinformation to their younger generation except for demonstrating this situationto them. A new way for the development of systems (or rather their controlblocks) is being opened at this point, the way of socialization – associationsof animals in groups for the enhancement of their own experience becauseprearranged signals are only intended for an information transfer from onesystem (subject) to another. There are probably several levels of suchanalyzer-abstractor and the degree of abstraction which may be attained by thisor other subject depends on the number of these levels. One may abstractexternal influences, external situations, real objects and even process ofself-training proper. But in any case one should be able to abstract andunderstand abstract symbols. This is what analyzer-abstractor does. Abstractingof real external influence, object or situation by means of situationalprearranged signal (a pose, a sound, a movement, some kind of action) may beperformed by the first signaling system. Abstracting of real externalinfluence, an object or a situation by means of sign /emblematic/ prearrangedsignal (symbol) can only be performed by second signaling system. Control blockhaving thesecond signaling system is an intellectual control block. Intelligence dependson the presence and the degree of development (number of levels) ofanalyzer-abstractor. In animals the second signaling system is very poorlydeveloped or undeveloped at all. If the horse dashes aside from a whip, it isnot even the first signaling system that works in this case, but rather a reflexon the new situation which the horse has learnt when it first encountered awhip. If the horse is coarsely shouted at even without showing a whip to it, itwill draw necessary conclusions. That’s the point at which the first signalingsystem takes effect. But if the horse is shown an inscription which reads thatit now will be beaten, the animal will not react to in any way because itcannot and will never be able to read since it does not have second signalingsystem. There are animals which apparently are capable of speaking andunderstanding words, written symbols and even making elementary arithmeticoperations. But the second signaling system is very poorly developed in themand is literally “in embryo” condition. When the trainer demonstrates the dog’scounting up to five, he bluffs in a way as in fact the dog picks up somemotional signals from him, i.e. the second rather than the first signalingsystem takes effect. The second signaling system is developed to the utmostextent only in human beings. In human beings it is developed to the extent thatit makes it possible to transfer all necessary information on our furtheractions to us in the nearest or even quite a distant future only by means ofsign symbols. We can read a book containing just mere squiggles only, howeversuch a full-blown and colorful pictures are open before us that we forget abouteverything on earth. Your dog for sure is surprised that its master looks forhours at a strange subject (the book) and does not move, run or make any sounds.And even if you try to explain to it that it is a book the dog will notunderstand it anyway, because it has not yet “matured”, it does not have secondsignaling system. Thus, the system with self-training control block containingthe first signaling system is an object which can abstract external influencesand situations by means of abstract situational prearranged signal. For thispurpose it has an analyzer-abstractor of the first order. But it can inform ofthe presence of such action or situation only at the moment of theiroccurrence. It may transfer its experience to other systems only with the helpof the situational prearranged signal whichpossibilities are limited. Such block has the “knowledge base” and “base ofabstraction” which it accumulates in its brain within the lifespan. In thecommunities of systems with first signaling system accumulation of personalknowledge is possible, whereas accumulation of social knowledge is impossiblebecause this knowledge is accumulated only in the control block (cerebrum)which possibilities are limited. The system which has self-training controlblock containing the second signaling system is an object which can abstractexternal influences and situations by means of abstract sign /symbolic/prearranged signal. For this purpose it has an analyzer-abstractor of Z-order.It can transfer its experience to other systems by transfer of information tothem in the form of conventional signs. Such blocks accumulate “knowledge base”outside its cerebrum in the form of script thanks to the developed “base ofabstraction”. It gives an opportunity to absolve from dependence ofaccumulation of knowledge on the lifespan of an individual subject. Incommunities of systems with the second signaling system accumulation of socialknowledge is possible and it strengthens the accumulation of individualknowledge. In other respects the control block with signaling systems issimilar to the self-training control block examined above. It can react todefinite external influence and learn to react to new external influence and anexternal situation, and its reaction is determined by type and number of itsSFU. The result of action of the system is also graduated. The number ofgradations is determined by the number of executive SFU in the system. It alsohas the analyzer-correlator, the analyzer-classifier with “knowledge base” and“base of decisions”, the analyzer-informant with the “database”, DPC (with the“Х” informant) and NF (the “Y” informant) which through a stimulator (efferentpaths) operate the system. In an inanimate/inorganic nature there are noanalogues of systems with control block having signaling systems. Biologicalanalogues of systems with control block containing the first signaling systemare all animals with sufficiently developed nervous system in which conditionedreflexes may be developed. As a rule such animals do already have socialrelations (flocks, herds and other social groups), as signals are transferredfrom one animal to another. Biological analogue of systems with control blockcontaining the second signaling system is only the human being.
Self-organizingsystems. Bogdanov has shown that there exist twomodes of formation of systems. According to the first one the system arises atleast from two objects of any nature by means of the third entity – connections(synthesis, generation). According to the second one the system is formed atthe expense of disintegration (destruction, retrogression/degeneration) of themore complex system that previously existed [6]. Hence, the system may beconstructed (arranged) from new elements or restructured (reorganized) at theexpense of inclusion of additional elements in its structure or by exclusionfrom its structure of unnecessary elements. Apparently, there is also a thirdmode of reorganization of systems – replacement of old or worn out parts forthe new ones (structural regeneration), and the fourth mode – changing ofconnections/bonds between internal elements of the system (functionalregeneration). Generation (the first mode of reorganization) is a process ofpositive entropy (from simple to complex, complexification of systems). Newsystem is formed for the account of expanding the structure of its elements.This process occurs for the account of emergence of additional connectionsbetween the elements and consequently requires energy and inflow of substances(new elements). The degeneration (the second mode of reorganization) is aprocess of negative entropy (from complex to simple, simplification of systems).New system is formed for the account of reduction of compositional structure ofits elements. This process releases energy and elements from the structure.Both modes are used for the creation of new systems with the new goals. In thefirst case complexification of systems takes place, while in the second onetheir simplification or destruction occurs. Structural regeneration (the thirdmode of reorganization) is used for the conservation and restoration of thesystems’ structure. It is used in the form of metabolism, but at that, thesystem and its goals remain unchanged. Energy and inflow of substances for theSFU restoration is required for this process. Functional regeneration (thefourth mode of reorganization) is used for the operation of systems as such.The principle of the systems’ functioning resembles generation and degenerationprocesses. In process of accretion of functions the systemincludes the next in turn SFU ostensibly building anew, more powerful system with larger number of elements (generation). Duringthe reduction of capacity of functions the system deactivates thenext in turn SFU as if it means to build a newsystem with fewer number of elements (degeneration). But these are allreversible changes of the system arising in response to the external influencewhich are effected for the account of the change of the condition of itselements and the use of DPC, NF and effectors. At that, the system’s structurekind of alters depending on its goal. New active and passive (reserve) SFU appearin it. This process requires energy and flow of substances for energy recovery,but not necessarily requires a flow of substances for the restoration of SFU.How does the organization (structuring) of system occur? Who makes decision onthe organization or reorganization of systems? Who builds control block of thenew or reorganized system? Who gives the command, the task for the system? Whyis the NF loop built for meeting the given specific condition? Before we try toanswer these questions, we will note the following. First, there is a need inthe presence of someone or something “interested” in the new quality of theresult of action who (or which) will determine this condition (set the goal)and construct the control block. Someone or something “interested” may be thecase coupled with naturalselection, whereby by way of extensive arbitrary search correspondingcombinations of elements and their interactions may emerge that are the most sustained/lasting in the given conditions of environment. Thus, theenvironment/medium sets condition and the incident builds the systems underthese conditions. At this point we do not consider the conditions in whichgeneration or degenerationoccurs and which are associated with redundancy or lack of energy (withpositive or negative entropy). We only consider the need and expediency ofcreation of systems. The more complicated the system is, the more searchoptions should be available and the more time it takes (the law of largenumbers). We will note, however, that the goal is set to any systems from theoutside, whether it is an incident, a person,natural selection or something else. But we cannotignore the following very interesting consequence. Firstly, the survival rate is the main and generalgoal of any living organism. And as far as the goal is set from the outside,the survival rate is also something set to us from the outside and is notsomething that stems from our internal inspirations. In other words, the aim tosurvive is our internal incentive, but someone or something from the outsidehas once imbedded it in us. And prior to such imbedding it was not “ours”.Secondly, in order to ensure the possibility of building systems with any kindof control block, even the elementary one, the presence of such elements isnecessary which quality ofresults of actions couldin principle provide such a possibility. It follows from the conservation lawand the law of cause-and-effect limitations that nothing occurs by itself.These elements should have entry points of external influence (necessarily),command entry points (not necessarily for uncontrollable SFU) and exit pointsof the result of action (necessarily). Exits and entries should havepossibility to interact between themselves. This possibility is realized bymeans of combination of homo-reactivity and hetero-reactivity of elements.Physical homo-reactivity is the ability of an element to produce the same kindof result of action as is the kind of external influence (pressure →pressure, electricity → electricity, etc.). At the same time,characteristics of physical parameters do not vary (10g →10g, 5mV →5mV, etc.). Homo-reactive elements are transmitters of actions. Physicalhetero-reactivity is the ability of an element, in response to external influenceof one physical nature, to yield the result of action of other physical nature(pressure → electric pulse frequency, electric current → axis shaftrotation, etc.). Hetero-reactive elements are converters of actions. Theelements with physical hetero-reactivity are, for example, all receptors ofliving organism (which transform the signals of measurable parameters intonerve pulse trains), sensors of measuring devices, levers, shafts, planes, etc.In other words such elements may be any material things of the world around usthat satisfy hetero-reactivity condition. Chemical reactions also fall underthe subcategory of physical reactions as chemical reactions represent transferof electrons from one group of atoms to others. Chemistry is a special sectionof physics. Logic hetero-reactivity is the ability of an element, in responseto external influence of one type physical nature, to yield the result ofaction ofthe same physical nature (pressure → pressure, electric current →electric current, etc.), but with other characteristics (10g → 100g, 5mA →0.5mA, 1Hz → 10Hz, 5 impulses → 15 impulses, etc.). Amplifiers,code converters, logic components of electronics are the examples of elementswith logic hetero-reactivity. Neurons do not possess physical hetero-reactivityas they can perceive only potentials of action and generate the potentials. Butthey have logic hetero-reactivity and they can transform frequency and pulsecount. They do not transform a physical parameter as such, but itscharacteristics. Any system consists of executive and operating elements. Atthe same time any control block of any system itself consists of some kind ofparts (elements), so it also falls under the definition of systems. In otherwords, control block and its parts are specific systems (subsystems) themselveswith their goals, and they have their own executive elements and local controlblocks operating these executive elements. Compulsory condition for part ofthem is their ability to hetero-reactivity of one or other sort. The effect oftheir control action consists only in their relative positioning. Command isentered into the local control block (condition of the task, thegoal/objective) and the latter continually watches that the result of actionalways satisfies the command. At that, the commandcan be set from the outside by other system external in relation to the givenone, or the self-training block may “decide” independentlyto change the parameters (but not the goal) set bythe command. So, the elements of control may be the same as the executiveelements. The difference is only in relative positioning. Director of anenterprise is just the same kind of individual as any ordinary engineer. Allelements of the system, both executive and controlling, are structuredaccording to a certain scheme specific for each concrete case (for eachspecific goal), but all of them must have the “exit” point/outlet/, whence theresult of action of the given element is produced, and two “entry points” – forexternal influence and for entry of the command. If the exit points of anyelements are connected to the entry points for external influences of otherelements, such elements are executive. In this case executive elements areconverters of one kind of results of action into the other, because the resultsof actions of donor systems represent external influence for the recipientsystems (executive elements). They (external influences) ostensibly enter thesystem and exit it being already transformed into the form of new results ofaction. If exit points of elements areconnected to command entry points of other elements, such elements arecontrolling and represent a part ofcontrol block. In such cases the result of action of some systems representsthe command for the executive elements, theinstruction on how to transform the results of action of donor systems into theresults ofaction of recipient systems. But the law of homogeneity of actions andhomogeneous interactivity (homo-reactivity) of the exit-entry connection isinvariably observed. If, for example, the result of action of the donor elementis pressure, the entry point of external influence (for the command) of therecipient element should be able to react to pressure, or otherwise theinteraction between the elements would be impossible.
Thirdly, inorder to “hack” into the control of other systems the given system should havephysical or any other possibility to connect its own exit point of result ofaction or own stimulatorto the entry point of the command of any other system. In this case this othersystem becomes the subsystem subordinate to the given control block, i.e. thesystems should have physical possibility to combine exits of their stimulatorsand/or results ofaction with the command entry points of other systems. For this purpose theyshould be mobile. There are types of devices for which the requirement ofphysical mobility is not necessary, but, nevertheless, information from onesystem may flow into control blocks of other devices. These are the so-calledrelay networks, for example, computer operating networks, cerebral cortex,etc., in which virtual mobility is possible, i.e. the possibility of switchingof information flows. In such networks the information can be “pumpedover”/downloaded/ in those directions in which it is required. For example,human feet are intended for walking, while hands – for handiwork. How ispredestination effected? In principle hands and feet are structuredidentically, with the same autopodium, the same fingers (the same executiveelements). Nevertheless, it is practically impossible, for example, to brushthe hair with feet. Why? Because there are certain stereotypes of movements inthe cerebral cortex, without which hands are not hands and feet are not feet.But we know cases when a person who lost both hands and nevertheless, heperfectly coped with many household affairs with the help of feet and took partin a circus show. How was it possible? Some kind of remodeling/change/ occurredin his brain and he changed his stereotypes. Cerebral structures which werepreviously controlling hands have “downloaded” their “knowledge bases” intothose cerebral structures which operate the feet. Cerebral cortex was only ableto do it thanks to the presence of its property of relay circuits, i.e. thepossibility to turn information flows to the directions required for the givenpurpose. Organization and reorganization of systems may be incidental andtarget-oriented. In incidental organization or reorganization there is nospecial control block which has the goal and decision on building of a newsystem, even more so in such a detail that, for example, such-and-such exitpoint of a stimulator needs to be connected to such-and such command entry point.Fortuity is determined by probability. That’s where the law of large numbersworks, which reads: “If theoretically something may happen, it will surelyhappen, provided a very large number of occurrences”. The more the number ofcases is, the higher is the probability of appearance of any systems,successful and unsuccessful, because fortuity creates the systems, theprobability sets their configuration and the external medium makes naturalselection. Therefore evolution lasts very long, sorting out multitude ofoccurrences (development options). It is for this reason that variouscombinations of connections of parts of systems occur. Therefore, bothnonviable monsters and the systems most adaptable to the given conditions maybe formed. Those weak are annihilated, while those strong transfer their“knowledge bases” and “bases of decisions” to their posterior generations inthe form of genetically embedded properties and instincts. It is not soimportant in the organization of systems which control block (simple orcomplex) the coalescing (organizing) systems have. What is only important isthat the exit points of stimulators or results of action of one kind of systemsconnect to the command entry points of the others. Control blocks of coalescingsystems may be of any kind, from elementary to self-training. At that, even ifthe self-training block (i.e. sufficiently developed) “would not want” toconnect its command entry point to the exit point of stimulator or the resultof action of other system, even the simplest one, it still won’t be able ofdoing anything if it fails to safeguardits command entry point. The virus “does not ask the permission” of a cell whenit “downloads” its genetic information in the cell’s DNA. The decision onreorganization of the system (purpose) may come from the outside, from theoperating system sited higher on a hierarchy scale. It is passivepurposefulness, since the initiative comes from the outside. The externalsystem “tells” the given system:  “As soon as you see such-and-such system,affix it immediately to yourself”. The system can undertake active actions forsuch an organization, but it is not yet self-organizing as such, but an imposed(forced, prescriptive) organization. But if it “occurs” to the system that “itwould be quite good if that green thing that stuck to me is included  as acomponent in my own structure, since the experience shows it can deliverglucose for me from СО2and light”, it would then mean self-organizing. Thus, perhaps, once upon a timechlorophyll wasincluded in the structure of seaweed. Most likely, it did not happenpurposefully,but rather accidentally (accidental organization), as we cannot be sure thatthose ancient seaweeds had a self-training control block, and the independent“thought” may only occur in the system with such control block. This example isonly drawn to illustrate what we call a self-organizing system. But the idea totake a stick in one’s hands to extend the hand and get the fruit hanging highon the tree is only a prerogative of the higher animals and the human being,which is a true example of self-organization. Only the systems withself-training control block can evaluate the external situation, properlyassess the significance of all the novelty surrounding the given system anddraw conclusion on the expediency of reorganization. It is an activepurposefulness anyway, since the initiative originated inside the given systemand it “decided” on its own and no one “imposed” it on the system. Externalmedium dictates conditions of existence of the systems and it can “force” thesystem to make the decision on reorganization. But the decision on the time andcharacter of reorganization is taken by the system itself on the basis of itsown experience and possibilities. Only systems with self-training control blockcan initiateactive purposefulness, can be deliberately theself-organizing systems. Thus, a man has invented work tools, having thusstrengthened the possibilities of its body. At that, it should be noted that thedecision on self-organizing doesnot indicate at the freedom of choice of the goal of the system, but a freedomof choice of its actions for the achievement of the goal set from the outside.In order to implement its goal in a better way, for example, to survive insuch-and-such conditions, the system makes the decision on reorganization sothat to better adapt to external conditions and enhance its survival chances.
Metabolism andtypes of self-organization. All the above was only concerning the creation ofnew systems and their development. But any systems are continually exposed tovarious external influences which sooner or later destroy them. Our world is incontinuous and uninterrupted movement. The speeds of this movement may vary:somewhere events occur once in millions years, while somewhere else millionstimes a second. But most likely it is impossible to finda single place in the Universe whereno movement of any kind (thermal, electric,gravitational, etc.) occurs. Hence, the process of negative entropy is alwayspresent. Any systems are always being reorganized at the expense ofdisintegration of more complex systems that have been existing earlier, which growold (degenerate). Destruction is a process of loss by systems of their SFU.Systems of mineral nature (crystals, any other amorphous, but inanimate bodies,planetary, stellar and galactic systems) continuously undergo various externalinfluences and are scattered with varying speed due to the loss of their SFU.Mineral nature grows old and changes, because the entropy law — from morecomplex to more simple — works. In the mineral nature complexification(generation) can only occur in case of excess of internal energy or itscontinuous inflow from the outside. Thus, in a thermonuclear pile of ordinarystars nuclei of complex atoms including atoms of iron were formed. But theenergy of such piles is not yet sufficient for the formation of heavier nuclei.All other heavier nuclei were formed as a result of explosions of supernovaeand the release of super-power energy. Therefore, figuratively speaking, ourbodies are built of stellar ashes. But as soon as energy of thermonuclearsynthesis comes to an end, the star starts to die out, passing through certainphases. We do not know yet all phases of the development and dying of stars,but if failing “to undertake some sort of measures” after a very long period oftime not only stars, but atoms as well, including their components (protons,neutrons and electrons) will be shivered. Thus, the free neutron “unprotected”by intranuclear system breaks up into a proton, electron and neutrino within 12minutes. Hence, the atomic and intranuclear system is the system of stabilizationof a neutron protecting atom and its elements from disintegration. But evensuch stable and seemingly eternal stellar formations such as “black holes”“evaporate” in the course of time, expending their mass for gravitationalwaves. In the absence of energy inflow the system would just flake/scatter andlose its SFU. It follows explicitly from thermodynamics laws. The so-called“thermal entropic death” is coming forth. Destruction of systems under theinfluence of external environment is the forced entropic reorganization(degeneration), rather than self-organization. The objects of mineral naturepossess only passive destruction protection facilities and one of the majormeans of protection is integration of elements in a system (generation). Consequently,the emergence of systems and their evolution in mineral nature represents meansof protection of these elements from destruction. One can not conquer alone.The system is always stronger than singletons. Formation of connections/bondsbetween the elements and the emergence of generation type systems in mineralnature is the passive way of protection of elements against the destructiveeffect of negative entropy. The weakest bodies are ionic and gas clouds, whilethe strongest ones are crystals. However, all of them cannotresist externalinfluences indefinitely long, because they react only after their occurrence,and they cannot resist entropy. Consequently, the presence of passive means forthe protection against destruction is insufficient. Whatever solid and largethe crystals might be, they would be scattered /flaked in the lapse of timeeither. In order to keep the system from destruction it is necessary toreplenish destroyed parts continually. Systems of vegetative, animal and humannature also undergo various external influences and also are scattered (wornout) with varying speed. And it happens for the same reason and the same law ofnegative entropy, i.e. from more complex to more simple (degeneration) works.But these systems differ from the systems of mineral nature that actively tryto resist destruction by continual renewal of their SFU structures. Thisrenewal occurs at the expense of continuous building of new SFU in substitutionof the destroyed ones. This process of renewal of destroyed SFU also representsstructural regeneration as such – a purposeful metabolism. Therefore,metabolism of living organisms is an active way of protection of systems fromdestructive effect of negative entropy (from degeneration). In mineral nature metabolismmay take place as well, but it essentially differs from metabolism of anyliving systems. Crystals grow from the oversaturated saline solution, theatmosphere exchanges water and gases with the seas, automobile and otherinternal combustion engines consume fuel and oxygen and discharge carbondioxide. But if a crystal is taken out from saline solution, it will justcollapse and will not undertake any measures on conservation of its structure.When a camshaft in the automobile engine is worn out the car does nothing toreplace it. Instead, it is done by man. Any actions of the system directedtowards the replacement of destroyed and lost SFU represent self-organizationanyway, which in the living nature is called structural self-reorganization ormetabolism. In mineral nature structural self-reorganization is nonexistent.Any living system, regardless of its complexity, would undertake certainactions for the conservation of its structure. At that, there are always twoflows of substances in living systems – flow of energy and“structural”/constructive/ flow. The energy flow is intended to provide energyfor any actions of systems, including structural self-reorganization, as it isnecessary every time to build new connections/bonds which require energy(regeneration). “Structural” flow of substances is only used for structuralregeneration, i.e. replacement of worn out SFU for the new ones (in this casewe do not examine the system’s growth, i.e. generation). When we talk aboutself-reorganization we mean “structural”flow of substances, although such flow is impossible without energy. Myocardiumin humans completely renews (regenerates) its molecular structure approximatelywithin a month. It means that its myocardiocytes, or rather their elements(myofibrillas, sarcomeres, organelles, membranes, etc.) are continually beingworn out and collapse, but are continually built again at the same speed.Outwardly we can see one and the same myocardial cell, but eventually itsmolecular composition is being completely renewed. Throughout the humanlifespan the type of organization varies. In the early years of lifeorganization occurs at the expense of inclusion of new additional elements inthe structure (generation, the organism grows and develops), whereas startingfrom the mid-life period degeneration predominantly takes place, i.e.destruction process (disintegration of the previously existing more complexsystem). But these are now the particulars associated with imperfection of realliving systems. For any system the overall objective is to exist in this World,and for this purpose it should counteract destructive influences, for whichpurpose it should have specific SFU which facilitate its operation and whichcontinuously collapse and need to be continuously renewed, i.e. build anew,since regeneration is the essence of self-reorganization by means ofmetabolism. Hence, the living nature differs from inanimate first of all inthat metabolism is intended for the conservation of its structure (structuralregeneration). In principle, any reaction of any systems is directed towardsconservation of the systems. Control block of systems takes care of it usingall its possibilities for this purpose: DPC, NF and analyzers for the SFUoperation. But in mineral nature there are only passive ways of protection. Andwhen the system of mineral nature loses its SFU, it does not undertake anyactive measure to replace them. It would try to resist the external influence,but no more than that. In vegetative and animal nature and humans the systemscannot passively resist the destructive effect of environment either, they alsocollapse, but anyway they have active means of restoration of the destroyedparts, they have the purposeful metabolism aimed at replacement of the lost SFU(structural regeneration). It uses two mechanisms of the so-called geneticregeneration: reproduction of systems (the parent will die, but children willremain) and reproduction of elements of systems (regeneration of elements ofcells and tissue cells themselves). These ways of conservation of systems aresufficiently effective. It is known how complex it is to get rid of weeds inthe field. There are sequoias aged several thousand years that are found innature. At the level of separate individuals of a species this genetic systemproves as the system with simple control block, as simple automatic machinebecause the DNA molecule does not have remote sensors, is has noanalyzer-correlator and it is impossible to develop conditioned reflexes in itduring the lifespan of one individual. But at the level of species of livingsystems genetic mechanismproves anyway as a system with complexcontrol block because it “has a notion” of space and it has collective memoryin the form of conditioned reflexes and it is able of self-training (adaptationof species). It is for this reason that genetic accumulation of collectiveexperience occurs, which then is shown in the form of instincts at the level ofseparate individuals of a species. This collective genetic mechanism watchesthat tomato looks like tomato, a cockroach looks like a cockroach andchimpanzee looks like a chimpanzee, and it watches that the behavior of thesystems is relevant. We do not know yet all the details of this mechanism,although genomes of many living organisms, including human genomes, aredeveloped. We know that genes contain recorded genetic information on how tostructure this or another protein, but we do not know yet how, for example, howthe form of the nose constructed from this protein is preset. The gene is knownresponsible for the generation of pigment that tinctures the iris /orbitalseptum/ but we do not know how the form and the size of this septum is coded.This mechanism is probably realized only partially in the DNA itself, as agenome of an insect has much more in common, let’s say, with a human genome,than the insect itself with the human being. We do not know how the feelers ofany insect of such-and-such length are programmed and where it is recorded thatit should have eight pedicles or one horn on its head. And why from theseproteins programmed in one of the DNA genes structures in the form of thefeelers should be built in this particular place, while the structures in theform of intestinal tubules should be built in another place. Protein moleculesare very complex and gigantic formations in terms of molecular sizes with avery sophisticated three-dimensional configuration. Probably, separatemolecules of certain albumen types, incidentally or non-incidentally, may approacheach other so that to form, like in a puzzle,the albuminous conglomerate only of a specific shape. In that way it ispossible to explain both the form and sizes of albuminous structures. We canalso assume thatcasually assembled lame/poor forms have been rejected by evolution, while thosesuccessful were purposefully fixed in genes. Consequently, the difference offorms of organs constructed of identical proteins is explained by thedifference of the protein molecules structure? It may be true… But why thenkeratin here is formed in the shape of elytra, and there – in the form of hornsor some kind of septa in the insect’s body? DNA only programs building material– albumen/proteins, rather than the structure (form), i.e. the organs built ofthese proteins, since DNA contains a record of only how to structure theproteins (the “bricks” for building a structure). But where is “the drawing ofthe entire building” and its configuration recorded? There are no answers forthe present. So, living systems have the purposeful genetic structuralregeneration which is intended for continual renewal of elements of the system.Genetic mechanism uses the “database” recorded in DNA and realized by means ofRNA. If it were not for the failures in this system, there would have been nomutations and variability of species. However, the “faulty” mechanism ofmutations is too much subjected to contingencies and cannot be target-orientedjust because of contingency (incidental self-organization). Reproductivemechanism of mutations allows making selection by some features, and this isexactly a purposeful mutation (purposeful self-organization). This mechanismcan change its program due to cross mating or at the moment of changing lifephases (larva→chrysalis→moth), although the possibilities of suchchange are still very limited. A wolf will never beget a tiger and a trunk willnever grow in a wolf either, even if there would be a sudden need in it, atleast, for sure, not during the lifespan of one generation. But if me myself,for example, need right now to “reconstruct” a hand to extend it and to tearoff a fruit from a tree, should I then wait for several generations to pass formy hand to grow and extend? Can’t one get transmuted without resorting tometabolism? It is possible if “conscious” self-organization is added. Allliving beings, including humans, have genetic system of contingencyself-organization and in this sense the human being is the same animal as anyother animal. But “conscious” and purposeful type of self-organization is onlyinherent in human beings. Systems with preset (target-oriented) properties willalways be forming only in the event that organization or reorganization ofsystems is purposeful. Only the control block “knows” about the goal of thesystem and only it can make a decision, including on the system reorganization.However, not each control block is suitable for target-oriented reorganization.In order to decide that “that system” needs to be attached to itself it isnecessary to “see” this system, know its property and define, even prior tobeginning interaction, whether these properties suit for the achievement of itsown purpose. And for this purpose it is necessary to be able to “see” andassess the situation around the given system. All self-training systems areable of making such an analysis. Therefore, many higher animals can reorganizetheir body by enhancing its possibilities with additional executive elements.They use tools of work (stones, sticks, etc.) for hunting food. But theseanimals, perhaps, act at the level of instincts, i.e. at the level of geneticself-organization, because even insects can use work tools. True “conscious”self-organization at the given stage of evolution is only present in humanbeing because only he/she has analyzers-abstractors of respective degree ofcomplexity. Only the human being could develop instruments of labor up to thelevel of modern technologies because it has second signaling system whichhelped to accumulate the experience of the previous generations by fixing it inthe abstract form, in the form of the script. And only the human being usingthis experience has realized that there exists metabolism in a living organismand that it is possible to influence an organism so that to reorganize, if theneed arises (to cure sick organism). Structural regeneration is intendedfor conservation of the systems’ structure. However,metabolism is not a full warranty from the destruction of systems either.Plants cannot foresee the forthcoming destruction because they do not possessthe notion of space and they do not see the situation around them, because theyhave simple control block. Fire will creep up and burn a plant, the animal willapproach and eat it, while the plant will quietly  waiting for its lot becauseit does not see the surrounding situation, does not know the forecast and itdoes not have corresponding decisions regarding specific situations. That iswhy the systems emerged with more complex control blocks (animals and humans)which can anticipate a situation and protect themselves from destruction.Animals know about space and see the situation around, because they have morecomplex control blocks. They can compete very effectively with mineral andvegetative media. But competition between the animal species has placed them innew circumstances. Now it is not enough to have only complex control block andto see the surrounding situation. In order to survive it is not enough only tobe able of scampering or be strong physically, it is necessary to better orientitself in space and better assess the situation and be able to make conclusionsof own failures in case of survival. For this purpose it is necessary todevelop control blocks. The more complex the control block, the higher is thedegree of safety. And now it is not physical strength which is a criterion ofadvantage, but cognitive ability, i.e. the more complex the control block is(the brain with all its hierarchy of neural structures), the better. Knowledgeis virtue. At that, the purposes of metabolism in animals and humans are thesame as in flora, i.e. reproduction of systems and reproduction of elements ofsystems. Hence, in process of evolution advancement to ensure higher degree ofsafety of systems, the possibilities of regeneration in the form of metabolismwere supplemented by intellectual possibilities of control blocks. Regardlessof what kind of nature the system belongs to (mineral, vegetative, animal orhuman) one of its main purposes is always to preserve itself and its structure.But in mineral nature there are only passive ways of conservation, whereas inthe organic nature active ways of conservation do exist: self-organization atthe expense of purposeful metabolism. Therefore, struggle for food has alwaysbeen the foundation of existence. But metabolism only is not sufficient.Therefore, in animals new active ways of protection are added: assessment ofexternal situation and protection from the destructive external influences(complex reflexes, behavioral reactions). However, complex reflexes are notenough either, as it is necessary also to learn new situations and be able ofmaking new decisions (reflexes to new stimuli/exciters). But these appeared tobe insufficient as well because of limitation of personal experience.Therefore, personal experience was supplemented by collective experience forthe account of the first signaling system (conditioned reflexes: the firstsignaling system, complex behavioral reactions). And as far as the lifespan ofeach system is limited, in order to transfer experience to the subsequentgenerations second signaling system emerged which allows to save personalexperience of each system in the form of the script  regardless of the system’slifespan. Consequently in order to better preserve itself, it is necessary forthe system to change and complicate continually the structure (evolution anddevelopment of species) and, apparently to be on the safe side, it’snevertheless better to be more complex rather than simpler (evolution race).Thus, a system may have: incidental organization; generation (incidentalphysical coincidence of exit points of stimulator or result of action of onesystems with the command entry points of control block or entry points ofexternal influence of other systems; may be present in systems with any controlblocks,including elementary); degeneration (destruction,structural simplification, loss of SFU under the influence of environment –other systems, may be the systems with any control blocks, including  elementary);purposeful organization; forced generation (purposefulphysical combination of exit points of stimulator orresult of action of one systems with the command entry points of control blockor entry points of external influence of other systems; may be in systems withany control blocks, including  elementary); forced degeneration (destruction,structural simplification, loss of SFU of the system due to the purposefuleffect of other systems; may be in systems with any control blocks, including elementary);self-organization; functional regeneration (operation of the system proper,actuation or de-actuation of functions of own SFU, depending on situationalneeds, without change of the structure; may be in systems with any controlblocks, including elementary); genetic structural regeneration in the form ofmetabolism and reproduction of individuals directedtowards preservation of its structure (may be insystems with control blocks, starting from simple ones); genetic structuralregeneration in the form ofinstinctive/subconscious/ structuralreorganization aimed at strengthening the possibilities of an organism by usingother systems, that are not an immediate part of the given system (subjects)(uses “genetic” memory and may be present in systems with control blocks,starting from simple ones); conscious structural regeneration directed tostrengthening of possibilities of an organism by use of other systems, notbeing an immediate part of the given system (subjects) (various technologies;it is aimed at strengthening the possibilities of an organism, may be presentin systems with control blocks, starting from complex ones with the secondsignaling system). As we can see, there is a succession present in the givenclassification of organization ofsystems, as it includes everything that exists in our World, starting fromobjects of mineral nature and including human activities in the form ofindustrial technologies.
Evolution of ourWorld. We always say that the objects (systems) exist in our World /Unietse/andthey operate in it. Therefore it is necessary to give a definition of theconcept “our World”. We call “our World” the greatest and universal system inwhich based on the law of hierarchy all objects exist as its subsystems whichcan be part of it without coming into conflict with the laws of conservationand cause-and-effect limitations. Such objects are target-oriented associationsof systemic functional units (SFU, elements) – the groups of elementsinteracting with specific goal/purpose (systems, or rather subsystems of ourWorld). These include both the objects which existed before and arenon-existent now and those that exist now and will appear in the future as aresult of evolution. Absolutely all objects of our World have one or another purpose.We do not know these purposes and we can only guess them, but they are presentin all the systems without exception. The purpose determines the laws ofexistence and architecture (“anatomy”) of objects, limits interaction betweenthem or between their elements and stipulates the hierarchy of both sub-goalsand subsystems for the achievement of these sub-goals. But this architecture iscontinually found insufficient (limited) because it is determined by the law ofcause-and-effect limitations. It forces the systems to continuously seek theway to overcome these limitations, develops them and determines direction ofevolution of the systems. That is why the systems develop towards theircomplexification and enhancement of their possibilities (evolve). If therewould be no limitations, there would be no sense in evolution becauseultimately the goal of evolution always consists in overcoming the limitations.All objects of our World have at least two primary goals: to be/exist in thisWorld (to preserve themselves) to fulfill the goal and to have maximumpossibilities to perform the actions for the achievement of the goal. However,any object of our World is limited in its possibilities to varying extent dueto the law ofcause-and-effect limitationsand moreover, since the objects are continually exposed to various externalinfluences destroying them, the systems have to continually protect themselvesfrom such destruction. Therefore, the systems at first “have invented” passiveand then active ways ofprotection against such destructive influence. The process of “invention” ofthese ways of protection and the enhancement of their possibilities is whatevolution of objects of our World means exactly, at that it implies not onlythe evolution of living beings, but evolution of everything that exists in theworld. Consolidation of objects in groups strengthens them and ensures thepossibility for them to co-operate against destruction in a target-orientedmanner. It is for the reason of “survival” of elements that the systems cameinto being, and complexification of elements just magnifies theirpossibilities. The simplest systems are those having only simple control block.Such objects include all objects of mineral nature, as well as plants. Thepossibilities of elementary particles are too small, and the lifespan of manyof them is too short. The lifetime and possibility of an electron, proton orneutron are tenfold. Grouping of elements not only increases their lifetime,but also increases their possibilities. What can be done by electron (proton,neutron) cannot be done by elementaryparticles constituting them. What can be done byatoms can not be done separately by protons, neutrons and electrons.Grouping ofatoms in molecules has enabled the development of more complex systems, up tohuman being, construction of which would have been impossible using elementaryparticles. However, although in process of further consolidation of atoms andmolecules in conglomerates (mineral objects: gas clouds, liquid and solidbodies) the possibilities of these objects increase, but their lifetime startsto decrease sharply because the law of negative entropy works. Destruction isthe loss by the object of its SFU. There are only two ways to prevent fromdestruction: increase in durability of connections/bonds between the SFU,restoration of the lost SFU, prevention of the SFU losses. The first one ispassive, while the other two are active ways of protection. The increase indurability of connections/bonds between the SFU (the first way) is the passiveway of protection againstdestruction. Mineral bodies have only these passive means of protection fromthe destructive effect of the external medium. The weakest of them are gaseousobjects, while the strongest are crystalline. But even the strongest crystalmay be destroyed. Metabolism is aimed at the restoration of the lost SFU (thesecond way) and is the active way of protection of systems from destruction. Itis carried out at the expense of capture of necessary elements from theexternal medium. There is no metabolism in mineral objects, but it is presentin all living objects, including plants. Hence, our World can be dividedconditionally into two sub-worlds: inanimate/inorganic and animate nature. Thecriterion for such division is metabolism – the purposeful process ofrestoration of the lost SFU. But for such process the system should containcorresponding elements (metabolism organs) which are not present in the objectsof mineral inorganic nature, but do exist in plants. Prevention of SFU losses(the third way) is also an active way of systems’ protection from theirdestruction. Systems may be prevented from destruction for the account of theirbehavioral reactions depending on the external situation. If the situation isthreatening the system needs to escape from the given situation. But for thispurpose it is necessary to be aware about this situation, to be able to see it,as well as to have organs of movement which are nonexistent in the systems ofmineral and vegetative nature. For this purpose it is necessary to have atleast complex control block. Hence, in the animate nature it is possible tosingle out two more sub-worlds/natures: flora and fauna. The criterion for suchdivision is the complexity ofthe control block and its ability (theavailability of possibility) to show behavioral reactions. The more complex thecontrol block, the higher is the development of animal as a system. But atthat, note should be taken of the fact that the development of systems fromplants to animals was basically solving only one problem – to be/exist in thisWorld. The purport of existence of plants and the majority (if not of all) ofanimals, except for humans, is only in the metabolism. If the system is hungryit operates, if is satiated it stays idle. Yes, with complication of thecontrol block simultaneous increase in the possibilities of systems occurredtoo, but it still pursued the goals of metabolism. More adapted animal feedsbetter. If the system plays and lives jolly (emotional tint of behavioralreactions), such reactions as a rule are still directed towards self-trainingof systems for better hunting for other systems. Therefore such reactions arebasically inherent in young animals. More adult individuals do not play anymore. Note should be also taken of that division of animals into predators andherbivorous animals is quite conditional, since it is not eating meat that is adistinctive feature of a predator and plants may also be carnivorous (forexample, sundew and the like). Absolutely all animals, and not only them, butplants as well, are predators, since they represent the systems which feed onother systems. Even among the objects of mineral nature mutual relations of avictim-predator type may be found. Some systems (plants and herbivores) feed onsystems with simple control blocks (mineral objects and plants) because it iseasier thing to do. However, other systems (carnivorous) feed or try to feed onsystems with complexcontrol blocks (other animals), although it is much more complex to do so. Thatis why the donkey is more stupid than a tiger. The human being differs fromother objects of animate nature first of all in that it is not metabolism whichis the main purport of his/her life, but cognition. Yes, the higher the levelof knowledge, the better the nutrition. But the process of cognition in itselfprevails over all other processes aimed at metabolism. And even the metabolismitself is raised to the rank of art (the cookery). It is also possible to singleout the human nature in that way as well, since only a human being out of allobjects of our World has second signaling system (the intellectual controlblock) and aspiration towards cognition. Hence, the purpose of our World wasevolution which has stipulated the development of systems in the directiontowards complexification of their control blocks up to a human being. And thepurpose of this evolution was to develop systems to such a degree that theyhave learnt to cognize the World. We can look back and see the confirmation ofit throughout the entire history of development of our World in general andbiosphere in particular. We do not know what was before the Big Bang, and we donot even know to which extent such statement is qualified. However, after itonly the emergence and complexification of systems in the Universe was takingplace, at that it occurred only at the expense of complexification  of theircontrol blocks, because their primary SFU (elementary particles) practicallyhave not changed since then neither qualitatively, nor quantitatively. And we,the people, are the consequence and the proof of this development either. Thehuman being is the most complex system, the top of evolution which has occurredtill nowadays. Experience of this evolution shows that major distinctivefeature throughout the entire process of advanced development was only thedevelopment of control blocks of systems. We do not know the purposes of themajority of systems of our World, although we can fabricate a multitude ofspeculations on many issues of this subject. For example, nuclei of atoms ofchemical elements that are heavier than iron in those quantities which existnow in our Universe, could only and only appear as the result of explosions ofsupernovas. Hence, is the purpose of stars with evolution of a supernova typeis the production of nuclei of atoms harder than iron? It may be true, althoughno one would avouch for it for the present. But we can surely state that ahuman being in the shape it exists today and is known to us would not have beenexistent without the elements having atomic weight heavier that iron, becausethe structure of its organism requires the presence of such elements. So, thereare sufficient grounds for the assumption that stars of a supernova type arenecessary for the development of the humans. It sounds strange andextraordinary, but still it’s the fact. But we know for sure and withoutspeculations the purposes of some of the World’s systems, in particular, thepurposes of many systems of organism. We know one of the main objectives of anyliving organism – to survive in the environment, and we know the hierarchy ofsub-goals into which this purpose is broken down. We see how living systemsdevelop on the way of evolution, we see the differences of systems standing atdifferent levels of evolutionary process and we can explain the advantage ofsome systems over the others. In other words, the possibility is opened to usto construct classification of all systems of our World, includingthat of living systems. Today there is no uniformclassification of all objects of our World, but there are only separateclassifications of various groups of these objects, including classificationsof astronomical, geological, biological and other groups. At that, nowadays theunderlying principle of the majority, if not of all of these classifications,including classification of both the entire animate nature and the diseases, isthe organic-morphological analysis. But probably it is necessary to substituteit, as well as classification of diseases, for the classification based onsystemic analysis – the analysis of the goals/purposes. And the basic principleof the new classification should be not external distinctions, such as thenumber of feet or cones on the teeth, but two basic differences: differences bytypes of control blocks and types of executive elements. Moreover, it isnecessary to include all objects of our World in this classification – animateand inanimate, because our World is replete only with systems which differ fromeach other only in the degree of development of their control blocks and in theways of protection against destruction by the external media. The world isuniform, because it is a system in itself. Therefore, it is necessary to createcommon and single classification of all systems of our World. And systems areany objects, including animate/organic and inanimate/inorganic. Then it will bepossible to distinguish four worlds/natures (sub-natures) of objects in our World:the world of minerals/mineral nature/, vegetative, animal worlds/natures/ andthe world of humans/the human nature/. The population of each world differsfrom each other, as it was repeatedly underlined, only in control blocks andmetabolism. The objects of mineral and vegetative nature have simple controlblocks. But the objects of mineral nature have only passive ways of protectionagainst negative entropy (destruction). And allliving subjects, including plants, have active ways of protection against thesame negative entropy, i.e. active substitution of the destroyed SFU at theexpense of metabolism. Animals, unlike plants, in addition to metabolism, havemore complex control blocks which enable behavioral reactions and thus allowthem to control in a varying degree surrounding situation. And the humans havethe most complex control block which contains the second signaling system andconsequently it is capable of cognizing the whole World, including themselves,but not just what happens/exists nearby. And within each type of natureclassification we should also proceed further to include the criteria ofcomplexity of control blocks and then the criteria of presence and the degreeof development of executive elements, including the number of feet or cones onthe teeth. In this case classification will be the one of cause-and-effect typeand logical. For example, vegetative nature/the flora/ includes not onlyplants, but all the Earth’s population which possesses only simple controlblock and metabolism. And those are not only plants and not only metazoan.Procaryotes and eukaryotes, bacteria, phytoplankton, sea anemones, corals,polyps, fungi, trees, herbs, mosses and lichens and many others possessing andthose not possessing chlorophyll are all flora. They simply grow in space andthey have no idea of it because they “do not see” it. However, some plants, forexample, trees or herbs, unlike corals,fungi or polyps, contain chlorophyll (specific executive element). Suchclassification of systems has one incontestable advantage: it aligns everythingthat populates our World – the systems. The whole World around us is classifiedby a single scale, where the unit of measure is only the complexity of controlblock and executive elements used by it. In that way it would be easier for usto understand what life is. May it be so that inanimate nature does not existat all? Perhaps, “animate” differs from “inanimate” only in that it “hascomprehended” its own exposure to destruction under the influence of environmentand first has learnt self-restorability and then it learnt how to protectitself from destructions? Then Pierre Teyjar DeChardin is right asserting that evolution is a processof arousal of consciousness. Currently existingclassifications do not provide the answer to this question. New classificationof systems based on the systemic target-oriented analysis will make it possibleto understand, where the “ceiling” of development of systems of each of theworlds is and which of its subjects are still at the beginning of theevolutionary scale and which of them have already climbed up its top. But thisclassification is based on the recognition of the first-priority role of the goal/purposeon the whole and purposefulness of nature in particular, which idea isdisputable for the present and is not accepted by all. Therefore, queerposition was characteristic for the XX century: the position of struggle withnature, position which is still shared by a great many. This position isfundamentally erroneous, because the nature is not our enemy, but the “parent”,the tutor and friend. It “produced” us and “nurtured” us, having provided acradle, the Earth for us, and it has been creating greenhouse conditionsthroughout many millions years, where fluctuations of temperature were no morethan 100ºC and the pressure about 1 atmosphere, with plenty of place,sufficient moisture and energy, although Space is characterized by range of temperaturesin many millions degrees and of pressure in millions atmospheres. It hasbrought us up and made us strong, using evolution and the law of competition:“the strongest survives”. It is not our task “to take from it”, nor to strugglewith it, but to understand and collaborate with it, because it is not ourenemy, but the teacher and partner. It “knows” itself what we need and gives itto us, otherwise we would not have existed. This is not an ode to the nature,but the statement of fact of its purposefulness. Some may object that suchcombination of natural conditions which has led to the origination of humanbeing is just a mere fortuity which has arisen under the law of large numbersonly because the World is very large and all kind of options are possible init. However, that many incidental occurrences are kind of suspicious. Thenature continually “puts stealthily” various problems before us, but every timethe level of these problems for some reason completely corresponds to the levelof development of an animal or a human being. For some reason a man “hasdiscovered” a nuclear bomb at the moment when he could already apprehend thepower of this discovery. Nature does not give dangerous toys to greenhorns. Ifthere were no problems at all, there would be no stimulus to development and asof today the Earth would have been populated by the elementary systems, if itwere populated at all. However, if the problems sharply exceed the limit ofpossibilities of systems, the latter would have collapsed and the Earth wouldhave not been populated at all, if it would be existent in abstracto. And inany case there would have been no development on the whole. But we do exist andit is the fact which has to be taken into account and which requiresexplanation. And the explanation only consists in the purposefulness of Nature.
Systemicanalysis is a process of receiving answer to the question “Why is the overallgoal of the system fulfilled (not fulfilled)?” The notion of “systemicanalysis” includes other two notions: “system” and “analysis”. The notion of“system” is inseparably linked with the notion of the “goal/purpose of thesystem”. The notion “analysis” means examination by parts and arrangingsystematically (classification). Hence, the “systemic analysis” is the analysisof the goal/purpose of the system by its sub-goals (classification or hierarchyof the goals/purposes) and the analysis of the system by its subsystems(classification or hierarchy of systems) with the view of clarifying whichsubsystems and why can (can not) fulfill the goals (sub-goals) set forth beforethem. Any systems perform based on the principle “it is necessary andsufficient” which is an optimum control principle. The notion “it is necessary”determines the quality of the purpose, while the notion “is suficient”determines its quantity. If qualitative and quantitative parameters of thepurpose of the given system can be satisfied, then the latter is sufficient. Ifthe system cannot satisfy some of these parameters of the goal, it is insufficient.Why the given system cannot fulfill the given purpose? This question isanswered by systemic analysis. Systemic analysis can show that such-and-suchobject “consists of… for…”, i.e. for what purpose the given object is made,of what elements it consists of and what role is played by each elementfor the achievement of this goal/purpose. Theorganic-morphological analysis, unlike systemic analysis, can show thatsuch-and-such object “consists of… “, i.e. can only show of which elementsthe given object consists. Systemic analysis is not made arbitrarily, but isbased on certain rules. The key conditions of systemic analysis are the accountof complexity andhierarchy of goals/purposes and systems.
Complexity ofsystems. It is necessary to specify the notion of complexity of system. We haveseen from the above that complexification of systems occurred basically for theaccount of complexification of control block. At that, complexity of executiveelements could have been the most primitive despite the fact that control blockat that could have been very complex. The system could contain only one typeSFU and even only one SFU, i.e. to be monofunctional. But at the same time itcould carry out its functions very precisely, with the account of externalsituation and even with the account of possibility of occurrence of newsituations, if it had sufficiently complex control block. When the analysis ofthe complexity of system is made from the standpoint of cybernetics, thecommunication, informo-dynamics, etc. theories the subject discussed is thecomplexity of control block, rather than the complexity of the system. Noteshould be taken of that regardless of the degree of the system complexity twoflows of activity are performed therein: information flow and a flow oftarget-oriented actions of the system. Information flow passes through thecontrol block, whereas the flow of target-oriented actions passes throughexecutive elements. Nevertheless, the notion of complexity may also concern theflows of target-oriented actions of systems. There exist mono- andmultifunctional systems. There are no multi-purpose systems, but onlymono-purpose systems, although the concept of “multi-purpose system” is beingused. For example, they say that this fighter-bomber is multi-purpose becauseit can bomb and shoot down other aircrafts. But this aircraft still has onlyone general purpose: to destroy the enemy’s objects. This fighter-bomber justhas more possibilities than a simple fighter or simple bomber. Hence, thenotion of complexity concerns only the number and quality of actions of thesystem, which are determined by a number of levels of its hierarchy (seebelow), but not the number of its elements. Dinosaurs were much larger thanmammals (had larger number of elements), but have been arranged much simpler.The simplest system is SFU (Systemic FunctionalUnit). It fulfills its functions very crudely/inaccurately as the law thatworks is the “all-or-none” one and the system’s actions are the most primitive.Any SFU is the simplest/elementary defective system and its inferiority isshown in that such system can provide only certain quality of result of action,but cannot provide its optimum quantity. Various SFU may differ by the resultsof their actions (polytypic SFU), but they may not differ either (homotypicSFU). However, all of them work under the “all-or-none” law. In other words,the result of its action has no gradation or is zero (non-active phase), ormaximum (active phase). SFU either reacts to external influence at maximum(result of action is maximum – “all”), or waits for external influence (theresult of action is zero – “none”) and there is no gradation of the result ofaction. Each result of SFU action is a quantum (indivisible portion) of action.Monofunctional systems possess only one kind of result of action which isdetermined by their SFU type. They may contain any quantity of SFU, from one tomaximum, but in any case these should be homotypic SFU. Their difference fromthe elementary system is only in the quantity of the result of action(quantitative difference). The monofunctional system may anyway perform itsfunctions more accurately as its actions have steps of gradation of functions.The accuracy of performance of function depends on the value of action ofsingle SFU, the NF intensity and the type of its control block, while thecapacity depends on the number of SFU. The “smaller” the SFU, the higher thedegree of possible accuracy is. The larger the number of SFU, the higher thecapacity is. So, if the structure of the system’s executive elements (SFUstructure) is homotypic, it is then multifunctional and simple system. But atthat, its control block, for example, may be complex. In this case the systemis simple with complex control block. The multifunctional system is a systemwhich contains more than one type of monofunctional systems. It possesses manykinds of result of action and may perform several various functions (manyfunctions). Any complex system may be broken down into several simple systemswhich we have already discussed above. The difference of multifunctional systemfrom the monofunctional one is that the latter consists of itself and includeshomotypic SFU, while complex system consists of several monofunctional systemswith different SFUtypes. And at that, these several simple systems are controlled by one commoncontrol block of any degree of complexity. The difference betweenmonofunctional and multifunctional systems is in the quantity and quality ofSFU. In order to avoid confusion of the complexity of systems with thecomplexity of their control block, it is easier to assume that there aremonofunctional (simple)and multifunctional (complex)systems. In this case the concept of complexity of system would only apply tocontrol block. In monofunctional system control block operates a set of own SFUregardless of the degree of its complexity. In multifunctional system controlblock of any degree of complexity operates several monofunctional subsystems,each of which has its SFU with their control blocks. It is complexity ofcontrol block that stipulates the complexity of the system, and not only thetype of system, but the appurtenance of the given object to the category ofsystems. The presence of an appropriate control block conditions the presenceof a system, whereas the absence of (any) control block conditions the absenceof a system. Systems may have control blocks of a level not lower than simple.The full-fledged system can not have the simplest/elementary control block,whereas the SFU can.
So, the systemis an object of certain degree of complexity which may tailor its functions tothe load (to external influence). If its structure contains more than one SFU,the result of its action has the number of gradations equal to the number ofits SFU or (identically) the number of quanta of action. The number of thesystem’s functions is determined by the number of polytypic monofunctionalsystems comprising the given system. In former times development of life was progressingtowards the enlargement of animal body which provided some kind of guarantee inbiological competition (quantitative competitionduring the epoch of dinosaurs). But the benefits hasproven doubtful, the advantages turned out to be less than disadvantages, thatis why monsters have died out. This is horizontaldevelopment of systems. If they differ in quality it is tantamount to theemergence of new multifunctional systems. Such construction of new systems isthe development of systems along the vertical axis.  The example of it iscomplexification of living organisms in process of evolution, from elementaryunicellular to metazoan and the human being. What can be done by man can not bedone by a reptile. However, what can be done by reptile can not be done by aninfusorian (insect, jellyfish, amoeba, etc.). Complexification of livingorganisms occurred only for one cardinal purpose: to survive in whateverconditions (competition of species). Since conditions of existence aremultifarious, the living organism asa system should be multifunctional. The character of a new system is determinedby the structure of executive elements and control block features. If there isa need to extend the amplitude or the capacity of system’s performance thestructure of executive elements should be uniform. To increase the amplitude ofthe system’s performance all SFU are aligned in a sequential series, while toincrease the capacity – in a parallel series depending on the required quantityof the result of action (amplitude or capacity at the given concrete moment).Polytypic SFU have different purposes and consequently they have differentfunctions. The differences of SFU stipulate their specialization, whereby eachof them has special function inherent in it only. If the structure of anysystem comprises polytypic SFU, such system would be differentiated, havingelements with different specialization. In systems with uniform SFU allelements have identical specialization. Therefore, there is no differentiationin such system. So, the concept of specialization characterizes a separateelement, whereas the concept of differentiation characterizes the group ofelements. The number of SFU in real systems is always finite and therefore thepossibilities of real systems are finite and limited, too. Resources of anysystem depend on the number of SFU comprising its structure in the capacity ofexecutive elements. The pistol may produce as many shots as is the number ofcartridges available in it, and no more than that. The less the number of SFUis available in the system, the smaller the range of changes of externalinfluence can lead to the exhaustion of its resources and the worse is itsresistance to the external influence. By integrating various SFU in more andmore complex systems it is possible to construct the systems with any presetproperties (quality of the result of action) and capacities (amount of quantaof the result of action). At that, the elements of systems are the systemsthemselves, of a lower order though (subsystems) for these systems. And thegiven system itself may also be an element for the system of higher order. Thisis where the essence of hierarchy of systems lies.
 Hierarchy ofgoals/purposes and systems. The more complex the system, the wider the varietyof external influences to which it reacts. But the system should always produceonly specific (unique, univocal) reaction to certain influence (or certaincombination of external influences) or specific series of reactions(unique/univocal series of reactions). In other words, the system always reactsonly to one certain external influence and always produces only one specificreaction. But we always see “multi”-reactive systems. For example, we react tolight, sound, etc. At the same time we can stand, run, lay, eat, shout, etc.,i.e. we react to many external influences and we do many various actions. Thereis no contradiction here, as both the purposes and reactions may be simple andcomplex. The final overall objective of the system represents the logic sum ofsub-goals/sub-purposes of its subsystems. The goal/purpose is built ofsub-goals/sub-purposes. For example, the living organism has only one, but verycomplex purpose – to survive, by all means, and for this purpose it shouldfeed. And for this purpose it is necessary to deliver nutriment for histiccells from the external medium. And for this purpose it is necessary first toget it. And for this purpose it is necessary to be able to run quickly (to fly,bite, grab, snap, etc.). Thereafter it is necessary to crush it, otherwise itwon’t be possible to swallow it (chewing). Then it is necessary to “crush” longalbumen molecules (gastric digestion). Then it is necessary to “crush” thescraps of the albumen molecules even to the smaller particles (digestion induodenum). Then it is necessary to bring in the digested food to blood affluentto intestine (parietal digestion). Then it is necessary… And such “isnecessary” may be quite many. But each of these “is necessary” is determined bya sub-goal at each level of hierarchy of purposes. And for every such sub-goalthere exists certain subsystem at the respective level of hierarchy ofsubsystems. At that, each of them performs its own function. And in that way alot of functions are accumulated in a system. However, all this hierarchy offunctions is necessary for one unique cardinal purpose: to survive in thisworld. Any object represents a system and consists of elements, while eachelement is intended for the fulfillment of respective sub-goals (subtasks). Thesystem has an overall specific goal and any of its elements represents a systemin itself (subsystem of the given system), which has its own goal (sub-goal)and own result of action. When we say “overall specific goal” we mean not thegoals/purposes of elements of the system, but the general/overall/ purposewhich is reached by means of their interactions. The system has a goal/purposewhich is not present in each of its element separately. But the overall goal ofthe system is split into sub-goals and these sub-goals are the purposes of itselements anyway. There are no systems in the form of indivisible object and anysystem consists of the group of elements. And each element, in turn, is asystem (subsystem) in itself with its own purpose, being a sub-goal of theoverall goal/general purpose/. To achieve the goal the system performs seriesof various actions and each of them is the result of action of its elements.The logic sum of all results of actions of the system’s subsystems is final function– the result of action of the given system. Thus, one cardinal purposedetermines the system, while the sub-goal determines the subsystem. And so onand so forth deep into a hierarchy scale. The goal/purpose is split intosub-goals/sub-purposes and the hierarchy of purposes (logically connected chainof due actions) is built. To perform this purpose the system is built whichconsists of subsystems, each of which has to fulfill their respective sub-goalsand capable to yield necessary respective result of action. That is how thehierarchy of subsystems is structured. The number of subsystems in the systemis equal to he number of subtasks (subgoals) into which the overall goal isbroken down. For example, the system is sited at a zero level of hierarchy, andall its subsystems are sited at a minus one, minus two, etc. levels,accordingly. The order of numeration of coordinates is relative. It means thatthe given system may enter the other, larger system, in the capacity of itssubsystem. Then the larger system will be equalized to zero level, whereas thegiven system will be its subsystem and sited at a minus one level. Thehierarchy scale of systems is built on the basis of hierarchy ofgoals/purposes. Target-specific actions of systems are performed by itsexecutive elements, but to manage their target-oriented interaction theinteraction of control block of the system with control blocks of itssubsystems is needed. Therefore, the hierarchy scale of systems is, as a matterof fact, a hierarchic scale of control blocks of systems. This scale isdesigned based on a pyramid principle: one boss on top (the control block ofthe entire system), a number of its concrete subordinates below (control blocksof the system’s subsystems), their concrete subordinates under each of them(control blocks of the lower level subsystems), etc. At each level of hierarchythere exist own control blocks regulating the functions of respectivesubsystems. Hierarchical relations between control blocks of various levels arebuilt on the basis of subordination of lower ranking blocks to those of higherlevel. In other words, the high level control block gives the order to thecontrol blocks oflower level. Only 4 levels of hierarchy, from 0 to 3rd, are presented. Thecount is relative, whereby the level of the given system is assumed to be zero.The counting out may be continued both in the direction of higher and lower(negative) figures/values. The notions of “order” and “level” are identical.The notions of “system” and “subsystem” are identical, too. For example,instead of expression “a subsystem of minus second-order” one may say “a systemof minus second-level”. And although a zero level is assumed the level of thesystem itself, the latter may be a part of other higher order system in thecapacity of its subsystem. Then the number of its level can already becomenegative (relative numeration of level). Elements of each hierarchic level ofsystems are the parts of system, its subsystems, the systems of lower order.Therefore, the notions “part”, “executive element”,  “subsystem”, “system” andin some cases even “element” are identical and relative. The choice of term isdictated only by convenience of accentuating the place of the given element inthe hierarchy of system. The notion of hierarchic scale (or pyramid principle)is a very powerful tool and it embodies principal advantage of systemicanalysis. Systemic analysis is impossible without this concept. Both our entiresurrounding world and any living organism consist of infinite number of variouselements which are relating to each other in varying ways. It is impossible toanalyze all enormous volume of information characterizing infinite number ofvarious elements. The concept of hierarchy of systems sharply restricts the numberof elements subjected to the analysis. In the absence of it we should take intoaccount all levels of the world around us, starting from elementary particlesand up to global systems, such as an organism, a biosphere, a planet and so on.For global evaluation of any system it is sufficient to analyze three levelsonly: the global level of the system itself (its place in the hierarchy ofhigher systems); the level of its executive elements (their place in thehierarchy of the system itself); the level of its control elements (elements ofcontrol block of the system itself). To evaluate the system’s function it isnecessary to determine the conformity of the result of action of the givensystem with its purpose – due result of action (global level of function of thesystem), the number of its subsystems and the conformity of their results ofaction with their purposes – due resultsof their action (local functional levels ofexecutive elements) and evaluate the function of elements of control. In thelong run the maximum level of function of system is determined by the logic sumof results of actions of all subsystems comprising its structure and optimalityof control block performance. Abiding by the following chain of reasoning: “thepresence of the goal/purpose for implementation of any specific condition, thepresence of qualitative or quantitative novelty of the result of action, thepresence ofa control (block) loop” it is possible to single out elements of any concretesystem, show its hierarchy and divide cross systems in which the same elementsperform various functions. Systems work under the logical law which mainprinciple is the fulfillment of condition “… if..., then….”. In thiscondition “if  ..” is the argument (purpose), while “then...” is the function(the result of action). This condition stipulates determinism in nature andhierarchy scale. Any law, natural or social, requires implementation of somecondition and the basis of any condition is this logical connective “… if...,then…” At that, this logical connective concerns only two contiguous subsystemson a hierarchic scale. The argument “… if” is always specified by the systemwhich is on a higher step, whereas the function “then…” is always performed bythe system (subsystem) sited immediately underneath, at a lower step of ahierarchic scale. Actions of elements per se and interaction between theelements may be based on the laws of physics or chemistry (laws ofelectrodynamics, thermodynamics, mathematics, social or quantum laws, etc.).But the operation of control block is based only on the logical laws. And asfar as control block determines the character of function of systems, it isarguable that systems work under the logic laws. Sometimes in human communitiesthe “bosses” would imagine they may govern/control/ at any levels, but suchtype of management is the most inefficient one. The best type of management iswhen the director (the control block of multifunctional system)controls/manages/ only the chiefs of departments (control blocks ofmonofunctional systems), sets forth feasible tasks before them and demands theimplementation thereof. At that, the number of its “assistant chiefs” shouldnot exceed 7±2 (Muller's number). If some department does not implement itsobjectives, it means that either the departmental management (control block ofa subsystem) is no good because has (a) failed to thoroughly devise anddistribute the tasks between the subordinates (the SFU), or (b) hasinadequately selected average executives (SFU), or (c) impracticable goal hasbeen set forth before the department (before system), or (d) the directorhimself (control block of the system) is no class for the management. In suchcases the system’s reorganization is necessary. But if the system is wellelaborated and performs normally there is no sense for the director to “pry”into the department’s routine affairs. A chief ofdepartment is available for this purpose. The decision of the systemreorganization is only taken when the system for some reason cannot fulfill theobjective (system crisis). In the absence of crisis there is no sense inreorganization. For the purpose of reorganization the system changes thestructure of its executive and control elements both at the expense ofactuation (de-actuation) of additional subsystems and alteration of exit-entrycombinations of these elements. In such cases skipping of some steps ofhierarchy may occur and the principle “vassal of my vassal is not my vassal”violated. This is where the essential point of the system reorganization lies.At the same time, part of elements can be thrown out from the system assuperfluous (that’s how at one time we lost, for example, cauda and branchiae),while other part may be included in the system’s structure or shifted on thehierarchy scale. But all that may only happen in process of the systemreorganization proper. When the process of reorganization comes to an end andthe reorganized system is able of performing the goal set forth before it (i.e.starts to function normally), the control law of “vassal of my vassal is not myvassal” is restored.
Consequencesensuing from axioms.
Independence ofpurpose. The purpose/goal does not depend on the object (system) as it isdetermined not by the given object or its needs, but by the need of otherobject in something (is dictated by the external medium or other system). Butthe notion of “system” in relation to the given object depends on the purpose,i.e. on the adequacy of possibilities of the given object to execute the goalset. The goal is set from the outside and the object is tailored to comply withit, but not other way round. Only in this case the object presents a system.Note should be taken again of the singularity of the first consequence: thesystem’s purpose/goal is determined by a need for something for some otherobject (external medium or other system). Common sense suggests that supposedlysurvivability is the need of the given organism (the given system). But itfollows from the first consequence that the need to survive proceeds not fromthe given organism, but is set to it by another system external with respect toit, for example, the nature, and the organism tries to fulfill this objective.
Specializationof the system’s functions. In response to certain (specific) external influencethe system always produces certain (specific) result of action. Specializationmeans purposefulness. Any system is specialized (purposeful) and follows fromthe axiom. There are no systems in abstracto, there are systems that areconcrete. Therefore, any system has its specific purpose/goal. Executiveelements (executive SFU) of some systems may be homotypic (identical,non-differentiated from each other). If executive elements differ from eachother (are multitype), the given system consists of differentiated elements.
System  integrity.The system exerts itself as a unitary and integral object. It follows from theunity of purpose which is inherent only in the system as a whole, but not inits separate elements in particular. The purpose consolidates the system’selements in a comprehensive whole.
Limiteddiscrecity of system. Nothing is indivisible and any system may be divided intoparts. At the same time, any system consists of finite number of elements(parts): executive elements (subsystems, elements, SFU) and management elements(control block).
Hierarchy ofsystem. The elements of a system relate to each other in varying ways and theplace of each of them is the place on thehierarchic scale of the system. Hierarchy of systems is stipulated by hierarchyof purposes. Any system has a purpose. And to achieve this purpose it isnecessary to achieve a number of smaller sub-goals for which the large systemcontains a number of subsystems of various degree of complexity, from minimum(SFU) up to maximum possible complexity. Hierarchy is the difference betweenthe purposes of the system and the purposes of its elements (subsystems) whichare the sub-goals in respect to it. At that, the systems of higher order setthe goals before the systems of lower order. So, the purpose of the highestorder is subdivided into a number of sub-goals (the purposes of lower order).The hierarchy of purposes determines the hierarchy of systems. To achieve eachof the sub-goals specific element is required (it follows from the conservationlaw). Management/control in a hierarchic scale is performed in accordance withthe law “the vassal of my vassal is not my vassal”. In other words, directcontrol is only possible at the level “system — own subsystem”, and the controlby super system of the subsystem of its systemis impossible. The tsar, should he wish to behead acriminal, would not do it himself, but would give a command to his subordinateexecutioner.
System function.The result of the system’s performance is its function. To achieve the purposethe system should perform purposefully certain actions the result of whichwould be the system’s function. The purpose is the argument for the system(imperative), while the result of action of the system is its function. Thesystem’s functions are determined by a set of executive elements, theirrelative positioning and control block. The notions of “system” and “function”are inseparable. Nonfunctional systems are non-existent. “Functional system” isa tautology, because all systems are functional. However, there may be systemswhich are non-operational at the moment (in a standby mode). Following certainexternal influence upon the system it will necessarily yield certain specificresult of action (it will function). In the absence of the external influencethe system produces no actions (does not function). When taking into accountthe purpose, the argument is not the external influence, but the purpose. One shoulddistinguish internal functions of the system (sub-function) belonging to itselements (to subsystems, SFU) and the external functions belonging to theentire system as a whole. The system’s external function of emergentproperty is the result of its own action produced by the system. Internalfunctions of the system are the results of action of its elements.
Effectiveness ofsystems. Correspondence of the result of action to the goal set characterizesthe effectiveness of systems. Effectiveness of systems is directly linked withtheir function. The system’s function in terms of effectiveness may besufficient, it may by hyperfunction, decelerating and completely (absolutely)insufficient function. The system performs some actions and it leads to the productionof the result of its action which should meet the purpose for which the givensystem is created. Effectiveness of systems is based on their specialization.“The boots should be sown by shoemaker”. Doing the opposite does not alwaysresult in real systems’ actions that meet the target/preset results (partialeffectiveness or its absence). The result of action of the system (itsfunction) should completely correspond qualitatively and quantitatively to thepreset purpose. It may mismatch, be incidental or even antagonistic(counter-purposeful); at that, real systems may produce all these kinds ofresults of action simultaneously. Only in ideal systems the result maycompletely meet the preset purpose (complete effectiveness). But systems with100% performance factor are unknown to us. Integral result (integral function)is the sum of separate collateral/incidental and useful results of action. Itis this sum that determines the appurtenance of the given object to the notionof “system” with regard to the given purpose. If the sum is positive, then withrespect to the preset purpose the given object is a system of one or otherefficiency. If the sum is equal to zero, the object is not a system withrespect to the given purpose (neutral object). If the sum is negative, thegiven object is an anti-system (the system with minus sign preventing from theachievement of the goal/purpose). It applies both to systems and theirelements. The higher the performance factor,the more effective the system is. Discrepancy of the result of action of thegiven system with the due value depends on unconformity of quantitative andqualitative resources of the system, for example, owing to breakage(destruction) or improper and/or insufficient development of its executive elements(SFU) and/or control. Therefore, any object is an element of a system only inthe event that its actions (function) meet the achievement of the presetgoal/purpose. Otherwise it is not an element of the given system. Effectivenessof systems is completely determined by limitation of actions of the systems.
Limitation ofsystem’s actions. Any system is characterized by qualitative and quantitativeresources. The notion of resources includes the notion of functional reserve:what actions and how many of such actionsthe system may perform. Qualitative resources aredetermined by type of executive elements (SFU type), while quantitativeresources by their quantity. And since real systems have certain and finite(limited) number of elements, it implies that real systems have limitedqualitative and quantitative resources. “Qualitative resources” means “whichactions” (or “what”) the given system is able to perform (to press, push,transfer, retain, supply, secrete, stand in somebody’s light, etc.). “Quantitativeresources” means “how many units of measure” (liters, mm Hg, habitation units,etc.) of such actions the given system is able to perform.
Discrecity(“quantal capacity”) of the system’s functions. The system’s actions are alwaysdiscrete (quantized) as any of its SFU work under the “all-or-none” law. Thereexists no smooth change of the system’s function, but there always existsphased (quantized) transition from one level of function to another, sinceexecutive elements actuate or deactivate regular SFU depending on therequirements ofsystem. Transition of systems from one level of functions to another is alwayseffected by way of a leap. We do not always observe this gradation/gradualitybecause of the fact that the amplitude of the result of action of individualSFU can be very small, but still it is always there. The amplitude of thesesteps of transition from one level to another determines the maximum accuracyof the result of action of systems and is stipulated by the amplitude of theresult of action of individual SFU (quantum of action). Probably, elementaryparticles are the most minimal SFU in our World and consequently indivisibleinto smaller parts subjected to laws of physics of our World.
Communicativenessof systems. Conjugate systems interact with each other. Such communicationimplicates the link/connection between the systems,i.e. their communicativeness. We discern open andclosed systems. However, there are no completely isolated (closed) systems inour world which are not affected by some kind of external influence and whichare nowise influencing any other systems. One may find at least two systemswhich are nowise interacting with each other (do not react) among themselves,but one can always find the third system (and probably the group ofintermediate systems will be required) which will interact with (react to) thefirst two, i.e. be a link between them. If any system does not react at all toany influences exerted by any other systems and its own results of action areabsolutely neutral with respect to other systems, and it is impossible to findthe third system or a group of systems with which this system could interact(react to), it means that the given systemdoes not exist in our World. Interaction betweensystems may be strong or weak, but it should be present, otherwise the systemsdo not exist for each other. Interaction is performed for the account of chainsof actions: “… external influence → result of action...”  By closingthe end of such chain to its beginning we will get a closed (self-contained)system. The result of action after its “birth” does not depend on the systemwhich has “gave birth” to it. Therefore, it may become external influence forthe system itself. Then it will be a cyclically operating system, a generatorwith positive feedback. But the generator, too, requires for its performancethe energy coming from the outside. Consequently, it is to some extent openedeither. That is why theabsolutely closed systems are non-existent. Each system has a certain number ofinternal and external links/connections (between the elements and between thesystems, accordingly), through which the system may interact with otherexternal systems.Closeness (openness) of a system is determined by the ratio of the number ofinternal and external links/connections. The larger the ratio, the greater thedegree of closeness of a system is. Space objects of a “black holes” type areassumed to be referring to closed systems because even photons cannot break offfrom them. But they react with other space bodies through gravitation whichmeans that they “are opened” through the gravitation channel through whichthey “evaporate” (disappear).
Controllabilityof systems. Any system contains elements (systems) of control which supervisethe correspondence between the result of action of the system and the goal set.These control elements form the control block. Management of system is carriedout through commands givento its control block, whereas the control over its executive elements isexercised through sending commands to their control blocks. Any reflex is themanifestation of the work of the control block. And as far as control block isthe integral accessory of any systems, any systems have their own reflexes.Executive elements should fulfill the goal exactly to the extent preset by thecommand, neither more nor less than that (neither minimum nor maximum, butoptimum) based on a principle “it is necessary and sufficient”. Controlelements watch the fulfillment of the purpose and if the result exceeds thepreset one, the control block would force the executive elements to reduce thesystem’s function, whereas if it is lower than the preset result it will forceto increase the system’s function. The purpose is dictated by conditionsexternal with respect to the system. The command is entered into the systemthrough the special entry channel. All consequences represent continuation ofaxioms, are stipulated by purposefulness of systems, constructed under laws ofhierarchy and limited by the conservation law. The list of consequences couldbe continued, but those listed above are quite sufficient for the evaluation ofany system. Such evaluation applies to both the properties of the system andits interaction with other systems. Evaluation of the first consequence can beexpressed in percentage, i.e. what is the percentage of fulfillment (failure offulfillment) of the goal/purpose. The goal may be any due value. Otherconsequences may also be characterized either qualitatively or quantitatively,which actually represents the system evaluation, i.e. its diagnostics, systemicanalysis. The system is characterized by: the purpose/goal (determinesdesignation of the system); hierarchy (determines interrelations between allthe elements of the system without an exception); executive elements (SFUperforming actions); control block (watches the correctness of performance ofactions for the achievement of the goal). Anyobject, not only material, is also a system,provided it satisfies the above listed axioms and their consequences. Groups ofmathematical equations, logic elements, social structures, relations betweenpeople, intellectual/spiritual values, may also represent systemsin which same principlesof functioning of systems work under the samelogical laws. All of them have a purpose, their own SFU and control blockswhich watch the implementation of the goal/purpose. If the object has a purposeit is a system. And for the achievement of this purpose it should havecorresponding executive elements and control block with correspondinganalyzers, DPC and NF (which follows from theconservation law and the law of cause-and-effect limitations). Systemicanalysis examines the systems and their elements in a coordinated fashion. Theresult of such analysis is the evaluation of correspondence of results ofactions of the systems with their purposes and revealing the causes of thediscrepancy for the account of determination of cause-and-effect relationsbetween the elements of systems. The major advantage of systemic analysis isthat only such an analysis allows establishing the causes of insufficiency ofsystems. The purpose/goal determines both the elementary structure of systemsand interaction of its elements which is operated by the control block. Theinteraction of executive elements (SFU) only is not conducive to yieldingstable result of action meeting the purpose preset for the system. Addition toa system of the control block adjusted to the preset purpose enables producingstable (constantly repeated) result of action of the system meeting the presetgoal. The norm is such condition of a system which allows it to function anddevelop normally in the medium of existence which is natural for the given typeof systems and to yield reactions of such qualitative and quantitativeproperties whichallow the system to protect its SFU from destruction. The notion of “norm” isrelative with respect to average stateof the system in the given conditions. In case if conditions alter, thesystem’s condition should change, too. Reaction is the action of the systemaimed at producing the result of action necessary for its survival in responseto external influence, i.e. the system’s function. Reaction is always specific.Reaction may be: normal (normal reactivity), insufficient(hypo-reactivity), excessive (hyper-reactivity),distorted (unexpected reaction occurs instead of the expected one). Normalreactivity (normal reaction) means that functional reserves of systemscorrespond to the force of external influence and the operating possibilitiesof control block allow to adjust (control) SFU so that the result of actionprecisely corresponds to the force of external influence. Hypo-reactivity ofthe system (pathological reaction) arises in cases when functional reserves ofthe given system of living organism are insufficient for the given force ofexternal influence. Hypo-reactivity is always a pathological reaction.Hyper-reactivity of the system (normal or pathological reaction) is the onewhere the result of action of the system exceeds the target. Distorted reactionis a reaction of the system which mismatches its purpose. Pathology is the lackof correspondence of the systems’ resources to usual norms. Pathology includesother two important notions: pathological condition (defect) and pathologicalprocess (including vicious circle). Restoration is active influence on thesystem with a view to: liquidate or reduce excessive external influencesdestroying the SystemicFunctional Units; liquidate or reduce destructive effects of vicious circleif it has arisen; strengthen the function of theaffected (defective) subsystem, provided it does not lead to the activation ofvicious circle; strengthen the function of systems conjugated with thedefective one, provided it does not lead to strengthening the destructiveeffect of the vicious circle associated with the affected system or thedevelopment of vicious circles in other conjugated systems (does not lead tostrengthening of the “domino principle”); replace the destroyed SFU with theoperational ones. Any owner of the car knows that if something is broken inhis/her car (as a result of excessive external influence) and the defect turnsup, the transportation possibilities of its car sharply recede. If failingimmediately repairing the car, the breakages would accrue catastrophically(vicious circle) because the domino principle will be activated. And to “cure”the car it is necessary to protect it from excessive external influencesand to liquidate the defects.

MarkA. Gaides Hospitality named after Khaim Shiba, Tel Aviv, Israel.
Crisis.According to Lewis Bornhaim, crisis is a situationwhere the totality of circumstances which were earlier quite acceptable, all ofa sudden, due to the emergence of some new factor, becomes absolutelyunacceptable, at that it’s almost inessential, whether the new factor ispolitical, economic or scientific: death of a national hero, price fluctuations,new technological discovery; any circumstance may serve impetus for furtherevents (“the butterfly effect”: the butterfly’s wing  at the right place andtime maycause a hurricane). A well-known scientist Alfred Pokrandevoted a special work to crises (“Culture, crises and changes”) and arrived atinteresting conclusions. First, he notes that any crisis arises long before itfactually comes on the scene. For example, Einstein has published fundamentalsof relativity theory in 1905-1915, i.e. forty years before his works haveultimately led to the beginning of a new epoch and emergence of crisis. Pokranalso notes that every crisis implies the involvement of a great number ofindividuals and characters, all of them being unique: “It is difficult toimagine Alexander the Great in front of Rubicon or Eisenhower in the field ofWaterloo; it is just as difficult to imagine Darwin writing a letter toRoosevelt about potential dangers associated with nuclear bomb. Crisis is thesum of blunders, confusions and intuitive flashes of inspiration, a totality ofobserved andunobserved factors (which in systemic analysis is called a “bifurcationpoint”), an unstable condition of a system that may result in a number ofoutcomes: recoveryof stable level, transition to other steadyequilibrium state characterized by newenergy-and-informational level,or leap to a higher unstable level. At a bifurcation point a nonlinear systembecomes very sensitive to small influences or fluctuations: indefinitely smallinfluences may cause indefinitely wide variation of the condition of the systemand its dynamics. Originality of any crisis hides its striking similarity withother crises. The unique feature of one and all /most and least/ crises is thepossibility of prevision thereof in retrospect and irreversibility ofsolutions; characteristic frequencies of control processes sharply increase (atime trouble condition, shortage of time).
Power. Power isany possibility, whatever it is based on, to realize one’s own will in thegiven social relations, even notwithstanding counteraction. The power is alsocharacterized as steady ability of achievement of the goals set with thesupport of other people. The concept of power is “sociologically amorphous”,i.e. the exercise of power does not imply the presence of any special humanqualities (strength, intellect, beauty, etc.) or any special circumstances(confrontation, conflict, etc.). Any possible qualities and circumstances canserve for realization of will. These may include direct violence or threats,prestige or charm, any peculiarities of situation or institutional status, etc.An individual having a lot of money, holding senior position or being simplymore charming person, the one who is able to use better than others the circumstancesthat turned up — that person, as a rule, would be the one having more power.For characterization of dictatorial/imperious capacity the concept ofsupremacy/domination is also used. Domination/supremacy implies the probabilitythat the command of certain content will induce obedience in those to whom itis addressed. Domination/supremacy is a stronger notion than power. Dominationis legitimate and institutionalized power, i.e. it is such a power whichinvokes the will to subordinate and fulfill the orders and instructions andwhich, at that, exists in a sustainable format accepted both by thosedominating and dependent. With regard to the latter it is conventional to talkabout domination structures. Such legitimate and institutionalized power is thestate power. It is very important to distinguish the power from domination. Forexample, the person who is taken a hostage is under the authority of gunmen,but one can not say that they dominate over him/her. They force the hostage toobey by direct physical violence. But he/she does not want to obey and does notagree to recognize their right to dominate over him/her.
Elite. Elite isa group of individuals standing high in the ranks of power or prestige, which,thanks to their socially significant qualities (origin, wealth, someachievements), hold the highest positions in various spheres or sectors ofpublic life. The influence of these people is so great that they affect notonly the processes inside the spheres or sectors to which they belong, but alsothe social life as a whole. There are three basic classes of elite:authoritative/power-holding, valuе-associated and functional.Authoritative/power-holding elites are more or less closedgroups having specific qualities, and “imperious”privileges. These are the “ruling classes” — political, military orbureaucratic. Value-associated elites are creative groups exerting specialinfluence on the setup of minds and opinions of the broad mass. They arephilosophers, scientific-research expert community, intelligentsia in thewidest senseof this word. Functional elites are influential groups which in the course ofcompetition stand out from the crowd in different spheres or sectors of societyand undertake important functions in the society. These are rather open groups,accession to which requires the presence of certain achievements, for exampleholding managerial positions.
Group.Collective administrative actions differ from those individual in a variety ofparameters. Thus, the group is more productive in generation of the mostefficient and well-grounded ideas, comprehensive evaluation of one or otherdecisions or their projects, achievement of individual and team objectives. Thebasic drawback of the team decision-making is that it is more inclined toundertake higher risk. This phenomenon is explained in different ways:conformist pressure which manifests itself in that some team members do notdare express their opinions that vary from those stated before,especially the opinions of team leaders and the majority of team members, andcriticize them; a feeling of reappraisal, overestimation of their possibilitieswhich develops during intensive group communication (overrated feeling of “us”that weakens the perception of risk); mutual “contagion of courage”. Thiseffect arises in group communications; in case of widespread notion (usuallyerroneous) that in group decisions responsibility rests with many people andthe share of personal responsibility is rather insignificant (group failuresare usually less evident/appreciable and are not perceived as sharply asindividual’s failures); influence of leaders, especially formal heads whosevision of their main functions consists in indispensable  inculcation ofoptimism and confidence in the achievement of the purpose. The symptoms of the“group thinking” and group pressureas a whole are: illusion of invulnerability of the group. Group members areinclined to overestimation of correctness of their actions and quite oftenperceive risky decisions optimistically; unbounded belief in moralrighteousness of group actions. Group members are convinced of moralirreproachability of their collective behavior and uselessness of criticalevaluations by independent observers (“thecollective is always right”); screening of disagreeable or unwantedinformation. Data out of keeping with the group opinions are not taken intoconsideration and cautions are not taken into account either. Resulting from itis ignoring off necessary changes; negative stereotypification of the outsiders.The purposes, opinions and achievements of associations external in relation tothe given group tendentiously treated as weak, hostile, suspicious, etc. Quiteoften “narrow departmental interests /localistic tendencies/” and “clannishness”and self-censorship arise thereupon. Separate group members because of fears ofdisturbance of the group harmony abstain from expression of alternative pointsof view and their own interests; illusion of constant unanimity. Because ofself-censorship and perception of silence as a sign of consent externalconsensus is achieved very quickly without comprehensive discussion andapproval when making decisions on the problems. In this situation internaldissatisfaction is being accumulated which may further lead to conflict whichmay arise because of formal insignificant ground; social (group) pressure onthose who disagree. The requirement of conformist behavior, as a rule, leads tointolerance with respect to critical, disloyal (from the view point of the group)statements and actions and to “gag” the bearers thereof; restriction orreduction of possibilities of the outsiders’ participation in the formation ofcollective opinion and decision-making. Separate group members seek not to givethe chance of participation in the group affairs to the people who do notbelong to it, as they apprehend that it (including the information coming fromthem) will break the unity of the group.
Rational-universalmethod of decision-making implies an unambiguous definition of the substance ofa problem and ways of its solution. Its basic advantage consists in that whenrealized it allows complete and radical solving the problemor a preset task. Branch method implies takingpartial decisions  directed towards the improvement of situation, rather thancomplete solution of a problem (for example, under conditions of insufficientclarity of a problem, ways and means of its solution, in the absence of fullinformation on the situation, given the lack of possibility to foresee all theconsequences of the radical solution, under the pressure of the influentialforces inducing to compromises, the possibility of rise of sharp conflictswith unclear outcome, etc.). Mixed (mixed-scanning)method implies rational analysis of the problem and singling out of its main,key component which is attached a paramount importance and to whichrational-universal method is applied. Other elements of the problem are solvedgradually by making acceptable partial decisions that allows to focus effortsand resources on the key areas and at the same time have complete control overother elements of the situation, thus providing its stability.
Selection/choicemechanism. The optimal selection mechanism may be considered theconsensus-based system in which each participant of decision-making votes notfor one, but for all options (preferably more than two) and ranges the list ofoptions in the order of his/her own preferences. Thus, if four possible optionsare offered the participant of decision-making (the voter) defines a place ofeach of them. The first place is given 4 points, the second, third and forthare given 3, 2 and 1 points, respectively. After voting the points given tooeach option (the candidacy/nominee) are summed up and selected option is determinedbased on the quantity thereof. If sums of scores for any options are foundequal, repeated voting is held only for these options.
Networks.Network isdetermined as spatial, constantly changing dynamical systemconsisting of elements identical in terms of someparameters:  actors (figures), activity and resources (key for this type of anetwork), connected among themselves by communication flows. The networkstructure is the description of boundaries of interrelations between theelements and position ofelements in the network. The actors, activityand resources are connected with each other acrossthe entire structure of network. The actors develop and maintain relations witheach other. Various kinds of activity are also connected among themselves byrelations, which may be called a network. Resources are consolidated amongthemselves by the same structure of network, and moreover, all the threenetworks are closely interconnected and represent a global network. Actors,activity and resources form the system in which heterogeneous (diverse) needscoalesce with heterogeneous offers. In that way they are functionally connectedwith each other. Even in case of destruction of considerable part of network,the functions of the latter as a system will not be harmed, as they will passto other cells of the network (partially  their resources as well). In an idealnetwork there is no uniform control (coordinating) centre, there is only“floating” centre (centers) functioning at each specific moment and its functionsmay be usually performed by any cell of the network.
So, we haveexamined separate aspects of stimulation of scientific thinking. All thestudied materials require the development of skills for their practicalapplication. See in addition: Alvin Toffler “Shock of the Future”,“Metamorphoses of Power”, “The Third Wave”. Francis Fukuyama. Our PosthumanFuture. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 2002. 272 pp.), “The End ofHistory and the Last Human”. (Samuel Huntington). «Think tanks» PaulDickson, 1971.