MINISTRYOF HIGHER AND SECONDARY SPECIAL EDUCATION
OFTHE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
GULISTANSTATE UNIVERSITY
TheEnglish and Literature Department
Qualificationwork on speciality English philology
onthe theme:“ComparativeAnalysis of the Compound Words”
Supervisor:___________
Gulistan2008
I.Introduction
1.1Theme actuality
After theIndependence was proclaimed the Republic was faced with the necessity ofcreating new legislation corresponding with new realities, with the conditionsof Independence and the Parliament coped with this task, there have beenadopted new Laws and new Resolutions
For the firsttime in the history of our country, there adopted “The Law of the Republic ofUzbekistan on Education” and “The Law of the Republic of Uzbekistan on theNational Programme of Personnel Training System”. The main objective of allreforms in the field of economic policy is the individual. Therefore the taskof education, the task of rising up a new generation capable of national renaissancewill remain the prerogative of the state and constitute a priority. At presentgreat importance is attached to the study and teaching of foreign language. Inour recent past, in most cases the Russian language but not the mother tongueserved as mediator in the study of foreign languages. That is why in particularuntil the present, English-Uzbek and Uzbek-English Dictionaries had not beenavailable.
That’s why itis necessary to learn and compare English, German and Uzbek lexicology, grammarand phonetics.
2. The main goal of thework is to study, compare and analyze the compound words of Uzbek, Englishand German, to classify the compounds according to morphological and lexicalpoint of view.
3. The scientificdecision of set aims and purposes will maintain the easiest way for betterlearning and understanding Uzbek, English and German.
4. The scientific noveltyof the work. As we know, there aren’t enough manuals which compared theUzbek and the English languages. The novelty of the work is that in the workone can find new approaches of comparing and classifying the compounds.
5. The practical value
Work can beuseful for all who interested in English. At the university information whichtaken from the work can be used as a ready – materials at the lectures ofLexicology, Stylistics, Comparative Typology.
6. Literatureoverview
Basicinformation of the qualification work is given from the manuals, articles,researches of great scholars such as: by I.V. Arnold A Course in modern EnglishLexicology by R.S. Ginzburg, The English Word and others. The information whichis taken from Internet sites, World Book Encyclopedia and many otherdictionaries also served as a source of information.
7. Thestructure of the work
Work consistsof Introduction, Main part, Conclusion and the list of used literatures.
Compound wordsare words consisting of at least two stems which occur in the language as freeforms. In a compound word the immediate constituents obtain integrity andstructural cohesion that make them function in a sentence as a separate lexicalunit.
The structuralcohesion and integrity of a compound may depend upon unity of stress, solid orhyphenated spelling, semantic unity, unity of morphological and syntacticfunctioning or, more often, upon the combined effect of several of these orsimilar phonetic, graphic, semantic, morphological or syntactic factors.
The integrityof a compound is manifested in its indivisibility, i.e. the impossibility ofinserting another word or word group between its elements. If, for example,speaking about a “sunbeam” (English) кўкйўтал we can insert some other word between the article andthe article and the noun, e.g. a bright sunbeam, a bright and unexpectedsunbeam, because the article a is a separate word, no such insertion ispossible between the stems sun & beam қора & кўл, for they are not words butmorphemes.
In describingthe structure of a compound one should examine three types of relations, namelythe relation of the members to each other the relation of the whole to itsmembers, and correlation with equivalent free phrases.
Some compoundsare made up ofa determiningand a determined part, which may be called the determinant and me determinategroup. Thus, a blackboard, томорқа is very different from a blackboard, том орқа (сида). Its essential feature isbeing a teaching aid → ховли атрофида экин экиладиган Майдон →: not every board of a black color isa blackboard.
A blackboardmay be not a board at all but a piece of linoleum or some other suitablematerial. Its color is not necessarily black: it may be brown or somethingelse. Thus, blackboard → a board which is black. A chatterbox – оташқалб is not a box, it is aperson who talks a great deal without saying anything important: thecombination is used only figuratively. The same metaphorical character isobserved in the compound slowcoach хомсемиз. It is also idiomatic as it does not name a vehicle buta person who acts and thinks slowly. A fuss – pot is a person easily excitedand nervous about trifles. Thus for the original motivation of the idiomaticcompound could be easily recreated. The following examples illustrate idiomaticcompounds where it is not so obvious: “blackleg”, “strike breaker”, “blackmail”getting money or some other profit from a person by threats bluestocking “awoman affecting literary tastes and learning”
The analysisof the semantic relationship existing between the constituents of a compoundpresents many difficulties. Some authors have attempted a purely logicalinterpretation distinguishing copulative, existential, spatial and otherconnections. This scheme, however, failed to show the linguistic essence ofcompounds and was cumbersome and artificial.
A mistakecommon with many authors is treating semantic connections within compounds interms of syntactic relations. Marchand, For instance, when analyzing the typehouse – keeping, backbiting, housewarming, book – keeping, sightseeing, etc.Writes: “In most cases the first word is the object. A subject/predicaterelation underlies earth quaking, cock – crowing, cock – fighting, sun burning…. The first word is the predicate compliment in well – being and short –coming.”
N. G. Gutermanvery convincingly showed that such syntactic treatment should be avoidedbecause syntactic ties are ties between words, whereas in dealing withcompounds one studies relations within a word, the relations between themorphemes, its significant constituents. These two series of relations belongto different levels of abstraction and should not be mixed. In the compoundspacecraft space – is not an attribute to – craft. It cannot possess syntacticfunctions, being not a word but a stem, So it is more convenient to consider ita determinant restricting the meaning of the determinate by expressing thepurpose for which – craft – is designed or the medium in which it will travel.Surely, one could combine these two points of view using a more careful.Wording, and formulate it as follows: phrases correlated with compounds bymeans of transformational analysis may show objective, subject/predicate,attributive and adverbial relations. E.g. house – keeping: to keep house, well– being: to be well. In the majority of cases compounds manifest somerestrictive relationship between the constituents; types of restrictions showgreat variety.
Some examplesof determinative compound nouns with restrictive qualitative relations aregiven below.
The list isnot meant to be exhaustive and serves only to illustrate the manifoldpossibilities.
Purpose offunctional relations underlies such compounds as bathrobe, raincoat, ёмғирпўш, classroom – синфхона, notice – board, andsuitcase.
Differentplace or local relations are expressed in dockland, garden – party, sea –front. Comparison is the basis of blockhead, butter – fingers, floodlight, andgoldfish. The material or elements the thing is made of is pointed out silverwear, tin – hat, clay – pipe. Temporal relations underlie such compounds asnight – club, night – duty, summer – house and day – train. Sex – denotingcompounds are rather numerous: she – dog, he – goat.
II.Main part
ChapterI
2.1.1Specific features of English, Uzbek and German Compounds
A compound isa word composed of more than one free morpheme. English compounds may beclassified in several ways, such as the word classes or the semanticrelationship of their components.
Examples byword classModifier Head Compound noun noun wall paper adjective noun black board verb noun break water preposition noun under world noun adjective snow white adjective adjective blue – green verb adjective tumbledown preposition adjective over – ripe noun verb browbeat adjective verb highlight verb verb freeze – dry preposition verb undercut noun preposition love – in adjective preposition forth with verb preposition take out preposition preposition without
1) Since Uzbekis a mostly analytic language, unlike most other Germanic languages, it createscompounds by concatenating words without case markers. As in other Germaniclanguages, the compounds may be arbitrarily long. However, this is obscured bythe fact that the written representation of long compounds always containsblanks.
For example inGerman there are a lot of long compounds with more than three words: die Bewußtseinserziehung
— воспитание сознательность
achtzehnhundertzwölf– 1812
On the contraryUzbek compounds are short compounds.
Ex: кўзойнак, атиргул,бўтакўз, тоққайчи.
The way offorming Uzbek and English short compounds are the same, while German is notincluded to this group. There are three ways of forming short compounds
1. The solidor closed form in which two usually moderately short words appeartogether as one. Solid compounds most likely consists of short (monosyllabic)units that often have been established in the language for a long time.Examples are; housewife, lawsuit, and wallpaper.
Uzbek examples are: сувилон, тоғолча, гултувак.
This rule isalso relevant to German compounds.
These areexamples: Kraftwerk, die Kinderbibliothek.
2. The hyphenatedform in which two or more words are connected by a hyphen. Compoundsthat contain affixes, such as house – builder and single – mind (ed) (ness)but if these words are written in Uzbek they will be written without hyphen:single – mindedness – ҳурфикрлилик.
As well asadjective — adjective compounds and verb – verb compounds, such as blue – greenand freeze – dry, are often hyphenated. Some Uzbek verb – verb compounds arealso hyphenated: сотиб — олди, бориб — келди.
But in Germanthere is no hyphenated compound.
In addition toit there are some verb – verb compounds in German: kennenlernen, bleibenstehe.
Compounds thatcontain particles, such as mother – of – pearl and salt – and – pepper, mother– in – law, merry – go – round, are also hyphenated. But in German such kindsof particles are written together: Vergissmichnicht – forget – me – not – не забудка.
3. Theopen or spaced form consisting of newer combinations of usually longer, suchas: distance learning, player piano, lawn tennis.
In Uzbek thereare also such kind of open compounds: стол тенниси, масофавий ўқитиш.
But German isfar from this rule: All German compounds words are written together.
A compound word possesses a single semantic structure. The meaning of thecompound is first of all derived from the combined lexical meanings of itscomponents, which as a rule; retain their lexical meanings, although theirsemantic range becomes considerably narrowed. The lexical meanings of thecomponentsare closely fused together to create a new semantic unit with a new meaningthat is not merely additive but dominates the individual meanings of thecomponents. The semantic centre of the compound is found in the lexical meaningof the second component which is modified and restricted by the lexical meaningof the first, e.g. hand-bag is essentially 'a bag carried in thehand for money, papers, face-powder, etc.';pencil-case is 'a case for pencils',etc.
The components are often stems of polysemantic words but there is nodifficulty, as a rule, of defining which of the' multiple denotational meaningsthe stem retains in one or another compound word. Compound words with a commonsecond component can serve as an illustration. Let us take words with a commonsecond component, e.g. board-. Board — is the stem of apolysemantic word but it retains only one of its multiple denotational meaningsin each compound word: in chess-board it retains the denotationalmeaning of ’a wooden slab', in pasteboard, cardboard it can betraced to the meaning of 'thick, stiff paper’, in overboardto 'a ship's side', in notice-board, foot-board, key-boardto 'a flat piece of wood square or oblong'; in school-board to 'anauthorized body of men1, in side-board, above-board tothe meaning of 'table'. The same can be observed in words with a common firstcomponent, e.g. foot-, in foot-high, foot-wide the stem foot — retains the lexical meaning of 'measure'; in foot-print, foot-pump,foot-hold—'the terminal part of the leg'; in foot-path, foot-racethe meaning of 'the way of motion'; in foot-note, foot-lights,foot-stone—the meaning of 'the lower part, base’. It isobvious from these examples that the meanings of the sterns of compound wordsare interdependent and in each case the stems retain only one lexical meaningand that the choice of the particular lexical meaning of each component isdelimited, as in free word-groups, by the nature of the other member of theword.1 Thus we may say that the combination of stems serves as akind of minimal context distinguishing the particular individual lexicalmeaning of each component.
Both components, besides their denotational and co notational meaningspossess distributional and differential types of meaning typical of morphemes2the differential meaning, found in both components especially comes to the forein a group of compound words containing identical stems. In compound nouns eye-tooth—'acanine tooth of the upper jaw’, eye-lash—'the fringe of hair that edgesthe eyelid', eye-witness—'one who can bear witness from his ownobservation', eye-glasses—'a pair of lens used to assist defectivesight', eye-sore—'an ugly or unpleasant thing to see', eye-strain—'wearinessof the eye', etc, it is the differential meaning of the second components—tooth-,glasses-, witness-, etc. that brings forth -the different lexicalmeanings of the stem. eye — and serves as a distinguishing clue betweenthese words. We observe a similar significance of the differential meaning forthe choice of the lexical meaning of the other component in words with theidentical second component. In compound words, e.g. wedding-ring, nose-ring,ear-ring, finger-ring, key-ring, circus-ring, prize-ring, etc., it is notonly the denotational but mostly the differential meaning of nose-, ear-,finger-, etc. that distinguishes wedding-ring—'a ring wornconstantly as a distinctive mark of a married woman' from ear-ring—'anornament worn in the lobe of ear', key-ring — 'a ring for keeping keyson', circus-ring—'an arena in a circus' and prize-ring—'anenclosed area for fighting'.
Structural Meaning of the Pattern.
The lexical meanings of the components alone, important as they are, donot make the meaning of the compound word. The meaning of the compound isderived not only from the combined lexical meanings of its components, but alsofrom the meaning signaled by the pattern of the order and arrangement of thestems.
A mere change in the order of stems with the same lexical meanings bringsabout a radical change in the lexical meaning of the compound word. Forillustration let us comparelifeboat— 'a boat of special constructionfor saving lives front wrecks or along the coast' withboat-fife—'lifeon board the ship', a fruit-market — 'market where fruit is sold' withmarket-fruit—'fruit designed for selling', etc. Thus the structural patternor the distributional formula in compound words carries a certain meaning whichis independent of the actual lexical meanings of their components. In otherwords the lexical meaning of a compound is derived from the combined lexicalmeanings of its components and the structural meaning of the distributionalformula.
The structural meaning of the distributional formulas of compounds may beabstracted and described through the interrelation of their components. In analyzingcompound adjectives, e.g.duty-bound, wind-driven, tear-stained, weobserve that the distributional formula they are built after, i.e. n+ved,conveys the generalized meaning of instrumental or agentive relations betweenthe components which can be interpreted as 'done by' or 'with the help ofsomething'; the denotational meanings of the stems supply the action itself andthe actual doer of the action or objects with the help of which the action isdone. Thus,duty-bound may be interpreted as 'bound by duty',wind-driven as 'driven by wind', smoke-filled as 'filled with smoke'. Inthis case the distributional formula is monosemantic, hence compound adjectivesof this type would also be monosemantic and their lexical meanings would bederived from the structural meaning of the distributional formula and thecombined meanings of the stems.
The distributional formula in compounds, however, is not alwaysmonosemantic; if we take compound adjectives like, e.g.,age-long, world-wide, oil-rich,pleasure-tired, etc. built after n+a formula, we shall see that the generalizedmeaning of the structure itself may be interpreted in two ways: (a) throughrelations of comparison between the components as inworld-wide—'wide asthe world', snow-white, knee-high, etc. and (b) through various relationsof adverbial type as inoil-rich that can be interpreted as 'rich inoil', pleasure-tired—'tired of pleasure',colour-blind—'blind to colors’,etc. Compound nouns, consisting of two simple noun-stems (n+n) are mostpolysemantic in structure. The polisemy of the structure often leads to acertain freedom of interpretation of the semantic relations between thecomponents. For example, it is equally correct to interpret the compound nountoy-man as 'a toy in the shape of a man' or 'a man who makes toys, atoy-maker'. The compound nounclock-tower may likewise be understood as'a tower with a clock fitted in’ or 'a tower that serves as aclock'. Other examples to illustrate the polisemy of the distributional formulaand the variety of semantic relations that can be read into the same structure1arepontoon-bridge which may be interpreted as 'a bridge supported bypontoons, a bridge made of pontoons, pontoons in the form of a bridge, bridgefor pontoons'. Witch doctor may mean 'a doctor who is a witch', 'aperson whose business it is to detect or smell out witches, a doctor whowitches'. The illustrations may be easily multiplied, but the given examplesare sufficient proof that the polisemy of compound words is the result of the polisemyof the structure and not the polysemantic character of individual components.
ChapterII
2.2.1The Criteria of Compounds
What is thecriterion of a compound? Many scholars have claimed that a compound isdetermined by the underlying concept, others have advocated stress, and someeven seek the solution of the problem in spelling. H. Koziol holds that thecriterion of a compound is a psychological unity of combination, adding thatthere “seems to be” a difference of intonation between a compound and asyntactic group which it is, however, difficult to describe.
Stress alsohas been advocated as a criterion. “Wherever we hear lesser or least stressupon a word which would always show high stress in a phrase, we describe it asa compound member ice – cream ‘ajs – krijm is a compound, but ice cream is aphrase, although there is no denotative difference of meaning. Uzbek “ошқозон” is a compound (the organof body) but “ош қозон” is a phrase which means “apot for making a plov”. In German “hellgrün” is a compound which means“light — green”, but “hell grün” is a phrase with the meaning “lightgreen” (ёруғликяшил).
For acombination to be a compound there is one condition to be fulfilled: thecompound must be morphologically isolated from a parallel syntactic group.Blackbird has the morpho – phonemic stress pattern of a compound, black marketmoney by a post – office. These two stress patterns are the commonest amongcompound words and in many cases they acquire a contrasting forcedistinguishing compound words from word groups, especially when the arrangementand order of stems parallel the word – order and the distributional formula ofthe phrase, thus a ‘green – house’ – «a glass – house for cultivating tenderplants» is contrasted to a 'green 'house – «a house that is paintedgreen», 'dancing – girl – «a dancer» to 'dancing 'girl – «agirl who is dancing», 'missing – lists – «lists of men and officerswho are missing after a battle» to 'missing 'lists – «lists that aremissing», 'mad – doctor – «a psychiatrist» to 'mad 'doctor –«a doctor who is mad».
3) It is notin frequent, however, for both components to have level stress as in, e.g. 'arm– 'chair, 'icy – 'cold, 'grass – 'green.
Allsubstantial compounds show this pattern, with the exception of those firstelement is the pronouns all or self. such compounds have double stress (e.g.'all 'soul, 'all – 'creator, 'self – 'respect, 'self – 'seeker) of adjectivalcompounds only two types have the stable stress pattern heave stress / middlestress: the type color – blind and heart – breaking.
All otheradjectival types are basically double – stressed.
2.2.2Inseparability of Compound Words
Structurally the inseparability ofcompounds manifests itself in the specific order and arrangement of stems whichstand out most clearly in all asyntactic compounds. It is of interest to notethat the difference between words and stems even when they coincidemorphemically is especially evident in compound adjectives proper. Adjectiveslike long, wide, rich are characterized by grammatical forms of degreesof comparison longer, wider, richer. The corresponding stems lackgrammatical independence and forms proper to the words and retain only the part– of – speech meaning, thus compound adjectives with adjective stems for theirsecond components, e.g. age-long, oil-rich, do not form degrees ofcomparison the way words long, rich do. They conform to the general ruleof polysyllabic adjectives having analytical forms of degrees of comparison.This difference between words and stems is not so noticeable in compound nounswith the noun stem for the second component, as the paradigm of the compoundword coincides with the paradigm of the noun whose stem constitutes itsstructural centre.
Graphically most compounds have twotypes of spelling they are spelt either solidly or with a hyphen. Both types ofspelling when accompanied by structural or phonetic peculiarities serve as asufficient indication of inseparability of compound words in contradistinctionto phrases. It is true that hyphenated spelling when not accompanied by someother indications of inseparability may be sometimes misleading, as it may beused in word-groups to underline the phraseological character of combination asin, e.g. daughter-in-law, father-in-law, man-of-war, brother-in-arms,etc. which are neither structurally, nor phonetically marked by inseparability.
The two types of spelling typical of compounds, however, are not rigidlyobserved and there are numerous fluctuations between solid or hyphenatedspelling on the one hand and spelling with a space between the components onthe other, especially in nominal compounds built on the n+n formula. Thespelling of these compounds varies from author to and author from dictionary todictionary. For example, words—war-path, war-time, money-lender—arespelt both with a hyphen or solidly; blood-poisoning, money-order,wave — length, blood-vessel, war-ship—with a hyphen endwith a break;1underfoot, insofar, underhand—solidlyand with a break. This inconsistency of spelling in compounds, very oftenaccompanied by a level stress pattern (equally typical of word groups) makesthe outer indications of inseparability stand out less clearly and gives riseto the problem of distinguishing between compound words and word-groups.
The numerous borderline cases between compounds and word-groups areconnected with one of the most controversial problems in word-composition,known in linguistic literature as «the stonewall problem», in otherwords the problem whether complexes like stone wall, peace movement,summer days regularly spelt with a break should he regarded as compoundwords or word-groups. The solution of the problem centers on the nature of thefirst member of such formations. There are two approaches to this problem andlinguists, consequently, give different appraisals of the graphic and phoneticintegrity of such complexes.
Some linguists class such complexes as a specific group of compound wordson the ground that the connection between the members of such complexes cannotbe regarded as syntactic, as the usual means of connection between two nounstypical of Modern English syntax is either the possessive cafe or variousprepositions:" They consequently conclude that the connection in formationof the «stone wall» type is asyntactic hence the members of thesecomplexes are not words but grammatically unshaped elements, i.e. stems. As ajunction of two noun-stems they are referred to compound words. The asyntacticstructure is taken for a sufficient proof of their inseparability and lack ofgraphic integrity is disregarded. The proponents of this point of view go on tostale that these complexes may also be interpreted as combinations of anadjective with a noun, the adjective being formed from the noun-stem by meansof conversion for the given occasion, in which case a compound word wouldremain primary and a word-group secondary. This brings the linguists to theconclusion that these complexes make a specific group of compound words, oftentermed neutral.1 they are characterized by structural instabilitydue to which they can be easily disintegrated into free word-groups under theinfluence of parallel attributive combinations, level stress and spelling witha break between the components.
The above-cited treatment of these nominal complexes and the disregard ofthe outer, formal manifestations of inseparability is open to grave doubts. Onthe one hand, the productivity of conversion in formation of adjectives doesnot seem convincing because there are very few adjectives' of the type inindependent use in Modern English; on the other hand it is argued that ModernEnglish nouns in the Common case, singular are used in the attributive functionand a purely syntactic nature of the combination of two; full-fledgednouns has been almost universally recognized in the last few decades. If weshare the opinion, we shall come-to the obvious conclusion that there exists anominal type of free phrases built on the formula N+N and a group of nominalcompounds built on the n+n formula which stands in correlative relationsto each other. The recognition of nominal free phrases deprives «neutralcompounds» of theoretical validity. Nominal compounds remain a specificclass of compounds but in this case the distributional formula even in the mostindisputable cases has only a weakened distinguishing force and can by no meansbe taken for an overall criterion of their inseparability. It is evident thatthe hyphenated spelling or at least fluctuations between hyphenated spellingand spelling with a break become most significant in distinguishing nominalcompound words from word-groups. Consequently nominal complexes which areregularly spelt with a space between the components and are characterized bylevel stress pattern can hardly be regarded as inseparable vocabularyunits. It is noteworthy that occasional compounds of this type which havebecome-registered vocabulary units tend to solid or hyphenated spelling.
The componentof Uzbek compounds are combined in this way: 1. phonetical changes in the 1stcomponents of compound words. The consonants in the beginning of the 1stcomponent may be changed into another component:
Ex: сичқончўп — тишқончўп (the names of plant)
чилонжийда – жи лонжийда
созтупроқ- соғтупроқ
In somecompounds suffixes may be omitted and may form variants of the compounds words.
Ex: тугмачагул — тугмагул(“ча” is omitted)
гадойтахлит — гадотахлит (“й” is omitted.)
айта олмаслbк– айтолмаслик1
бўла олмаслик- бўлолмаслик2
In compoundword is ended with “йо”, itmust be written separately if it is ended with “ё” it must be written together as oneword.
Ex: қишлай олмоқ — қишлаёлмоқ
ушлай олмоқ- ушлаёлмоқ
тўқийолмоқ — тўқиёлмоқ
To form acompound verb with the verbs “емоқ, демоқ” which have “e” sound inthe root, one must add “я (й + а)” after “e, дe” e. g.: де+я олмоқ –деяолмоқ, е+я олмоқ, eя олмоқ.
2. Phoneticalchanges in the 2nd components of compound words. Ex: итбурун — итмурун Туябўйин — Туямўйин.
“б” consonant in the beginning of thesecond component a changed into ”в”
Ex: қорабой – қоравой, қўзибой — қўзивой
амакибачча — амакивачча, тоғабачча — тоғавачча.
Some suffixesmaybe added to the second element of compound word.
Ex: The most productive suffixfor this group is”ли” e.g.
In the book ofA.P. Khodjiev’s “Compound and repeated word” ” ли” suffix is given in brackets.
Ex: Such kinds of compoundwords are given in this book.
2.2.3.Motivation in Compound words.
Compound wordsare motivated2 through the individual lexical meanings of their components andthe meaning of the structure. In motivated compound words the native speakercan see a connection between the lexical meanings of the stems and the meaningof the order and arrangement of components of the word. Motivation in compoundwords varies in degree. There are compounds which are completely motivated,i.e. the lexical meaning of these words is transparent and is easily deducedfrom the lexical meanings of the stems and the meaning of their distributionalformulas. Compound words like wind-driven, sky-blue, foot-step, foot-pump,door-handle, and bottle-opener may serve as examples of completely transparentor motivated compound words. Motivation in compound words may be partial, butagain the degree will vary. Compound words like hand-bag, flowerbed, handcuffare all only partially motivated, but still the degree of transparency of theirmeanings is different: hand-bag, e.g., is essentially 'a bag designed to becarried in the hand', whereas handcuffs retain only a resemblance to cuffs andin fact are 'metal rings placed round the wrists of 3 prisoner'; a f lower-bedis not 'a mattress or piece of furniture’ as the lexical meaning of the secondcomponent suggests; but 'a piece1 of ground where flowers grow'. Compound wordswith a smaller degree-of partial motivation may be illustrated" by thewords: walkup—'a house without an elevator where one has to walk upstairs',cast-off—'discarded', castle-builder—'a day-dreamer, one who builds castle; in theair'.
There arecompound words that lack motivation altogether, i.e. the native speaker doesnot see any obvious connection between the meaning of their structure and theindividual meanings of the stems and consequently cannot deduce the lexicalmeaning of the word. Compound words like eye-wash –‘something said or done todeceive a person’, fiddlesticks — 'nonsense rubbish', wall-flower—'a woman whoremains. by the wall as a spectator at a dance, because not chosen as apartner', eye-servant—'a servant who attends faithfully to his duty only whenwatched’, night-cap—'a drink taken before going to bed at night',dog-eared—'having the corners of the leaves turned down' all lack motivationand their lexical meanings cannot be deduced from the meanings of theircomponents and the meaning of their structure. Lack of motivation in compoundwords may be often connected with the transferred usage of the denotationalmeanings of the components or of the whole word as in slow-coach—'a person whoacts slowly', sweet-tooth—'one who likes sweet food and drink', wall-flower;the words consequently acquire a new co notational meaning not proper to eitherof their components. Lack of motivation is of ten due to the specialized andunexpected semantic relations embedded in the compound word as in, e.g.,eye-servant, dog-days—'the hottest part of July and August’.
Sometimes themotivated and non-motivated meanings of the same word are felt as twohomonymous words, e.g. night-cap 1) a cap worn in bed at night and 2) a drinktaken before going to bed at night; eye-wash 1) a liquid for washing the eyesand 2) something said or done to deceive a person; eye-opener 1) enlighteningor surprising circumstance and 2) a drink of liquor.
SemanticClassifications
Semanticallycompound words may be classified (1) according to the degree of motivation, and(2) according to the structural meaning of various distributional formulasdescribed through the interrelation of the components.
1) According tothe degree of motivation compound words are subdivided into (a) motivated ornon-idiomatic, i.e. words marked either by complete or partial motivation whichmakes the meaning of the word transparent; (b) non-motivated or idiomatic, i.e.«words the lexical meanings of which cannot be inferred from theindividual meanings of their components and the meaning of the distributionalformula they are built after.
2) Accordingto the structural meaning or the type of semantic relations between thecomponents compound words may be classified into various groups as words basedon the relations of: (a) agent and action, e.g. sunrise, earthquake, (b) objectand action, e.g. warship, handshake, (c) the part and the whole, e.g.plum-tree, shirt-collar, eye-ball, etc., (d) the place end the action, or thedoer, e.g. street-fighting, grass-hopper, garden-party, (e) the time and theaction. e.g. day-flight, night-school, winter-sport, etc., (f) purpose, e.g.table-cloth, driving-suit, bird-cage, etc.
ChapterIII Classification of Compounds
2.3Types of Compounds according types of speech
Compound wordsmay be classified
a) from thefunctional point of view;
b) from thepoint of view of the way the components of the compound are linked together and
c) from thepoint of view of different ways of composition.
a)Functionally compounds are viewed as words belonging to different parts ofspeech. The bulk of Modern English compound belong to nouns and adjectives: e.g.arm – chair, baby – sitter, boiling – point, knee – high, rain – driven,adverbs and connectives are represented by an insignificant number of words,e.g. indoors, within, outside and we may say that composition on the whole isnot productive in adverbs and in connectives. It is of interest to note thatcomposition in verbs in Modern English is not productive either. Verbs that aremorphemically compound, such as to (goose flesh, (to) weekend; prove to bewords of second derivation on the word – formation level.
b) from thepoint of view of the means by which the components are joined together compoundwords may be classified into: 1) words formed by mere placing one constituentafter another in a definite order, e.g.: door – handle, rain – driven. Thismeans of linking the components is typical of the greater part of ModernEnglish compounds in all parts of speech.
2) compoundwords whose components are joined together with a linking element, as in speedometerFro – Asian; compounds of this type are found both in nouns and in adjectivesbut present a small group of words considerable restricted by the nature oftheir components, The components of compound words of this type are mostlyjoined with the help of the linking vowel [ou] and occasionally the vowel. Inboth cases the first component often contains a bound root. E.g. Fro – Asian,Sino – Japanese, Anglo Saxon, tragicomic other examples of compound words ofthis type are electro – dynamic, handicraft, handiwork. This group is generallylimited to the names of nationalities and scientific terms. The components ofcompound nouns may also be joined with the help of the linking consonant [slz]e.g. sportsman, tradesman, saleswoman, bridesmaid, statesman, landsman and etc.This is also a very small group of words restricted by the second component,which is, as a rule, one of the three stems man —, woman —, people —, andthe commonest of them being man.
c) Compoundsare also classified according to different ways of compounding. There are twoways of composition and accordingly we distinguish two types of compounds:those formed exclusively after a composition pattern, the so called compoundsand those formed by a simultaneous operation of two types of word – formation:composition and derivation, the so – called derivational compounds:
Compound wordsproper are formed by joining together stems of words already available in thelanguage, with or without the help of special linking elements such as: door – step,age – long, baby – sitter, looking – glass, they constitute the bulk of Englishcompounds in all parts of speech and include both productive and non –productive patterns.
In Uzbek therelationship between the components of compound words are different: They show:
1. Comparison:карнайгул,отқулоқ туяқуш, шерюрак, қўйкўз.
2. Relevance,purposed for something: гултувак (vase for flower), молқўра, оловкурак, токқайчи,қийматахта. In English washing –machine, blood – vessel (a tube through which bloods flows in the body).
3. Connectionto some places: сувилон (asnake which lives in water), тоғолча, чўлялпиз, қўқонарава like in English zookeeper,postman, house keeper, head – dress, ear – ring. In German Hausfrau,Wesserballspiel, Unterseeboot.
4. The mark ofsomething: аччиқтош,олақарға, шўрданак, қизилиштон, Қизилтепа. In English long – legged,bluebell, slow – coach. Here are some examples of German: Dampfheizung,Arbeitkleidung.
5.Relationship to quantity: бешбармоқ, мингоёқ, қирқоғайни,Бешариқ. This rule is also relevant to English compounds such as: three –cornered, fifteen – fold, six – fold, five – sided polygon. In German there areexamples of this kind: Funfjahreplan.
Uzbek compoundwords are classified:
a) from thepoint of view of the way the components of the compound are linked together: хомкалла, кўксултон,искабтопар.
b) from the point of view of agreeing:
тўйбоши,китобсевар, дунёқараш.
с) from the point of view of relationship between subject andpredicate: first elements of such kind compound will be predicate: гўшткуйди, келинтушди.
There are 6 typesof compound words in Uzbek:
1. Compoundnouns 4. Compound pronouns
2. Compoundadjectives 5. Compound adverbs
3. Compoundverbs 6. Compound number
Mostfrequently spread English compound words are:
1. Compoundnouns
2. Compoundadjectives
3. Compoundadverbs
4. Compoundverbs
Germancompound words are also divided into 4:
1. Compoundnouns
2. Compoundadjectives
3. Compoundverbs
4. Compoundnumbers
a) CompoundNouns
2.3.1Compound Nouns
Most Englishcompound nouns are noun phrases that include a noun modified by adjectives orattribute nouns. Due to the English tendency towards conversion, the twoclasses are not always easily distinguished. Most English compound nouns thatconsist of more than two words can be constructed recursively by combining twowords at a time. The compound science fiction writer, for example, can beconstructed by combining the resulting compound with writer. Some compounds,such as salt and pepper or mother – of pearl, can be constructed in this way,however.
In general,the meaning of a compound is a specialization of the meaning of its head. The modifierlimits the meaning of the head. This is most obvious in descriptivecompounds, also known as Karmad haraya compounds, in which the modifieris used in an attributive or appositional manner. A blackboard is aparticular kind of board which is generally black, for instance.
Indeterminative compounds, however, the relationship is not attributive. Forexample, a foot stool is not a particular type of stool that is like a foot.Rather, it is a stool for one's foot or feet. (It can be used for sitting onbut that is not its primary purpose). In a similar manner, the office manageris the manager of an office, an armchair is a chair with arms, and a raincoatis a coat against the rain. These relationships, which are expressed byprepositions in English, would be expressed by grammatical case in otherlanguages. Compounds of this type are also known as tatpurusha compounds.
But of theabove types of compounds are called endo centric compounds because the semantichead is contained within the compound itself a blackboard is a type of board,for example, and a footstool is a type of stool.
However, inanother common type of compound, the exocentric or ba huvrihi compound, thesemantic head is not explicitly expressed. a red head, for example, is not akind of head, but is a person with a red head, but a person with a head that isas hard and unreceptive as a block (i.e. stupid). And, outside of veterinarysurgery, a lion – heart is not a type of heart, but a person with a heart likea lion (in its bravery, courage, fearlessness).
Exocentriccompounds occur more often in adjectives than nouns. A barefoot girl,for example, is not a girl that is a bare foot, but a girl with a bare foot.Similarly, a V – 8 car is a car with a V – 8 engine rather than a car that is aV – 8, and a twenty – five – dollar car is a car with a worth of $ 25,not a car that is $ 25. The compounds shown here are bare, but more commonly, asuffixal morpheme is a added, esp. – ed. Hence, a two – legged person isa person with two legs and this is exocentric.
On the otherhand, endocentric adjectives are also frequently formed, using the suffixalmorphemes: — ing or -er/or. A car – carrier is a clear endocentricdeterminative compound: it is a thing that is a carrier of cars. The relatedadjective, car – carrying, is also endocentric: it refers to an object which isa carrying – thing.
These typesaccount for most compound nouns, but there are other, rarer types as well.Coordinative, copulative or dvandva compounds combine elements with a similarmeaning, and the compound meaning may be a generalization instead ofspecialization. Bosnia – Herzegovina, for example, is the combined area ofBosnia and Herzegovina, but a fighter – bomber is an aircraft that is both afighter and a bomber. Iterative or amredita compounds repeat a single element,to express repetition or as an emphasis. Day – by – day and go –go – go areexamples of this type of compound, which has more than one head.
Analyzabilitymay be further limited by cranberry morphemes and semantic changes. For instance,the word butterfly, commonly thought top be a metathesis for flutter by, whichthe bugs do, is actually based on an old bubbe – maise that butterflies arepetite witches that steal butter from window sills. Cranberry is a parttranslation from Low German, which is why we cannot recognize the element cran(from the Low German kraan or kroon, „crane“). The ladybird orladybug was named after the Christian expression „our Lady, the VirginMary“.
In the case ofverb + noun compounds, the noun may be either the subject or the object of theverb. In playboy, for example, the noun is the subject of the verb (the boyplays), whereas it is the object in call girl (someone calls the girl).
A black boardis any board that is black, and equal prosodic stress can be found on bothelements (or, according to psycholinguist Steven Pinker, the second one isaccented more heavily.) A blackboard, compound, may have started out as anyother black board, but now is a thing that is constructed in a particular way,of a particular material and serves a particular purpose; the word is clearlyaccented on the first syllable.
Soundpatterns, such as stresses placed on particular syllables, may indicate whetherthe word group is a compound or whether it is an adjective — + — noun phrase. Acompound usually has a falling intonation: „blackboard“, the»White House", as opposed to the phrases «black board».(Note that this rule does not apply in all contexts. For example, the stresspattern «white house» would be expected for the compound, whichhappens to be a proper name, but it is also found in the emphatic negation«No, not the black house; the white house!»).
Uzbek compoundnouns.
Uzbek compoundnouns are formed in the following ways:
1. Nounand noun: отқулоқ,қўларра
2. Adjective+ noun:кўксултон, хомток
3. Noun+ adjectivesective: гулбеор, ошкўк
4. Number+ noun: мингоёқ, қирқоғайни, учбурчак
5. Noun+ verb ўринбосар, бешиктерватар
6. Verb+ verb искабтопар, олиб сотар
Followingcompound words are written withouthyphen:
1) The nounswith one stress: гулкўрпа, ошқозон, ўқилон, тутмайиз.
2) Nouns + aр suffix: отбоқар, изқувар
3)Geographical places: Сирдарё, Оқтепа
GermanCompound nouns are formed in these ways:
1. Noun+ noun: Infinitivform
2. Verb+ noun:Leitglied
3. Noun+ adjective:Kleinkind, Reinmetall, Hochstufe
4. Number+ noun: Erststellung, Drittdroße, Tausendfuss
5. Pronoun +noun: Ichton, Erform, Ichbewußtsein
6. Adverb+ noun: Spätstellung
7. Präposition+ noun: Mitschüler, Zwischenglied, Abart.
German Noun + verb nouns may expressdifferent relationships:
1. Objectof action: Kindererziehung,Blaubersammlung
2. Subjectof action: Mutterliebe
3. Material:Brotteig
4. Time:Sonntagsanzug
5. Place:Dorfteich, Waldrande
6. Purpose:Brotmesser, Roman Schreiber
2.3.2Compound Adjectives
Englishcompound adjectives are constructed in a very similar way to the compound noun.Black board jungle, gunmetal sheen and green monkey disease are only a fewexamples.
There are somesimilarities in forming English and German compound nouns: The components ofsome compound nouns may be joined with the help of linking consonant: Englishcompound nouns statesman, sportsman nouns statesman, and sportsman are joinedwith the consonant «s».
Germancompound nouns are joined:
· withthe help of linking element – «s» or «es»
die Arbeit + s +der Plan = der Arbeitsplan
das Land + es +die Grenze = die Landesgrenze
· withthe help of " — in" or " — en".
der Student + en+ die Versammlung = die Studentenversammlung
· withthe help of linking element «e»
halt(en) + e +das Signal = das Haltesignal.
· withouta' linking element:
der Tausch + derWert = der Tauschwert.
But in Uzbekall compound nouns are joined together without any linking element.
A compoundadjective is a modifier of a noun. It consists of two or more morphemes ofwhich the left – hand component limits or changes the modification of the right– hand one, as in "the dark – green dress": dark limits thegreen that modifies dress.
Solidcompound adjectives
There are somewell – established permanent compound adjectives that have become solid over alonger period, especially in American usage: earsplitting, eye catching.However, in British usage these, apart from downtown, are more likelywritten with a hyphen: ear – splitting.
Other solidcompound adjectives are for example:
· Numbersthat are spelled out and have the suffix – fold added: «fifteen ‘fold»,«six fold».
· Pointsof the compass: «northwest», northwesterly,«northwestwards», but not North –West Frontier.
Hyphenatedcompound adjectives
A compoundadjective is hyphenated if the hyphen helps the reader differentiate a compoundadjective from two adjacent adjectives that each independently modifies thenoun. Compare the following examples:
· «aceticacid solution»: a bitter solution producing vinegar or aceticacid (acetic + acid + solution)
· «acetic- acid solution »: a solution of acetic acid.
The hyphen isunneeded when capitalization or italicization making grouping clear:
· «OldEnglish scholar »: an old person who is English and a scholar, orand old scholar who studies English
· «OldEnglish scholar»: is scholar of Old English
· "Defacto proceedings" not (de – facto)
If, however,there is no risk of ambiguities, it may be written without a hyphen:«Sunday morning walk». Hyphenated compound adjectives may have beenformed originally by an adjective preceding noun:
· «Roundtable» – «round – table discussion»
· «Bluesky» – «blue sky law»
· «Redlight» – «red light district»
· «Fourwheels» – «four wheel drive» (the singular, not the plural isused).
Others mayhave originated with a verb preceding and adjective or adv: «feelgood» – «feel – good factor», «by now, pay later» –«by – now pay – later purchase».
Yet others arecreated with an original verb preceding a preposition:
· «Stickon» — «stick – on label»
· «Walkon» — «walk – on part»
· «Standby» — «stand – by fare»
· «Rollon; roll off» — «roll – on roll – off ferry».
The followingcompound adjectives are always hyphenated when they are not written as oneword:
· Anadjective preceding a noun to which –d or –ed has been added as a past –participle construction, used before a noun:
o «loud– mouthed hooligan»
o «middle– aged lady»
o «rose- tinted glasses „
· Anoun, adjective, or adv preceding a present participle:
o “anawe – inspiring personality»
o «along – lasting affair»
o «afar –reaching decision»
· Numbersspelled out or as numerals:
o «seven-yearitch»
o «five-sidedpolygon»
o «20th-centurypoem»
o «30-piceband»
o «tenth-storywindow»
· Anumeric with the affix –fold has a hyphen (15-fold), but when spelled out takesa solid construction (fifteen fold).
· Numbers,spelled out or numeric, with added –odd: sixteen –odd, 70-odd.
· Compoundadjectives with high- or low-: «high-level discussion»,«low-price markup».
· Colorsin compounds:
o «adark-blue sweater»
o «areddish-orange dress».
· Fractionsas modifiers are hyphenated: «five-eight inches», but if numeratoror denominators are already hyphenated, the fraction itself does nottake a hyphen: «a thirty-three thousandth part».
· Fractionused as nouns have no hyphens: «I ate only one third of pie».
· Comparativesand superlatives in compound adjectives also take hyphens:
o «thehighest-placed competitor»
o «Ashorter-term loan».
· However,a construction with most is not hyphenated:
o «Themost respected member».
· Compoundsincluding two geographical modifiers:
o «Afro-Cuban»
o «African-American»(sometimes)
o «Anglo-Asian»
· Butnot
o "CentralAmerican".
The followingcompound adjectives are not normally hyphenated:
· Wherethere is no risk of ambiguity:
o «aSunday morning walk»
· Left-handcomponents of a compound adjective that end in –ly that modify right-handcomponents that are past participles (ending in –ed):
o «ahotly disputed subject»
o «agreatly improved scheme»
o «adistantly related celebrity»
· Compoundadjectives that include comparatives and superlatives with more, most, less orleast:
o «amore recent development»
o «themost respected member»
o «aless opportune moment»
o «theleast expected event»
· Ordinarilyhyphenated compounds with intensive adv in front of adjectives:
o «verymuch admired classicist»
o «Reallywell accepted proposal».
Englishcompound adjectives are formed:
1. Adjective+ noun: blackboard
2. Adjective+ adjective: blue-green, dark-red, light-green.
3. Adjective+ verb: highlight
4. Adjective+ preposition: forthwith.
In Uzbekcompound adjectives are formed in the following way:
1. Noun +noun – these adjectives are written separately: ҳаво ранг, кул ранг
2. Adjective+ noun – these adjectives are written as one word: қимматбаҳо
3. Nounor adverb a verb with the suffix «ap»: тезоқар, эрксевар, меҳнатсевар
But theseadjectives are hyphenated when we translate it into English: меҳнатсевар — hard-working, эрксевар — peace – loving and etc.
4. Noun +«apo» word: халқаро as in English international.
There are agroup of words which form compound adjectives, such as: аралаш, йўқ, кўл,олий, оч, тўқ, тўла, чала: қумаралаш лой, тенги йўқ қиз,кўп тармоқли соҳа, олий маълумотли, оч қизил, қорни тўқ,тўқ қизил.
In English wecan also find the signal words which form compound adjectives; but they arehyphenated: light, dark, long, middle, high: e.g. light – green, dark-blue,middle-aged, long-legged, and high-qualified.
Germancompound adjectives are formed like English compound adjectives.
1. Adjective+ adjective +Adjektive =shwarzweissrot.
Deutsch +usbekisch = deutsch — usbekisch
2. Hell +grün = hell – grün. As in English light – green
3. Adjektive+ Adverb = bekannt + in der Welt = Wellbekannt
машхур + дунёда = дунёга машхур
hart + wie Stahl= Stahlhart
қаттиқ+ пўлатдай
This kind ofadjectives always express comparison rot + wie ziegel = ziegelrot — красный как кирпич
blau + wie himmel= himmelblau — синий как небо
But in English“as … as” is used to show comparison: as blue as the sky
2.3.3Compound Verbs
In Uzbekcompound verbs are formed by joining two words:
1. Verb +noun – verb word: дам олмоқ (to rest), ҳимоя қилмоқ(to defend), пайдо бўлмоқ(to appear).
Some of themare synonyms to simple verbs:
ёрдам бермоқ,= ёрдамлашмоқ, — to help – to give ahand
2. Verb +verb = сотиболмоқ, чиқариб олмоқ, ютиб олмоқ.
Some verbssuch as ўқибчиқди, кўриб бўлди, бошлаб юборди are not compound verbs inspeech. Theyhave no a newlexical meaning.
Verbs whichare considered compound, may not bea compound verb in English and German:
муҳокамақилмоқ – to discuss (simple verb)
ғолиббўлмоқ –to win
In German themain word of compound verb is the second word, but modifying one will be:
· Noun:
teilnehmen — қатнашмоқ
rad fahren — велосипедда учмоқ
· Adjective:
fertigmachen-tayorlamoq,oxiragacha bajarmoq.
festhalten — ushlamoq.
leichtfallen — oson bo`lmoq
· Verb: kennenlernen- знакомитъся.
2.3.4 Classification of compound Words BasedonCorrelation
· Accordingto the type of correlation all productive types of compound words may beclassified into four major classes:
1. Adjectival-nominal compounds comprise four subgroupsof compound adjectives-three of them are proper and one derivational, they arebuilt after the following formulas and patterns:
· a, b)the n+a formula, e. g. snow-white, colour-blind, journey-tiredcorrelative; with word-groups of the A + as+N,. A +prp+Ntype, e.g. white as snow, blind to colours, tired of journey. The structure ispolysemantic;
· c) thes+ved formula, e g. fear-stained, duty-bound, wind-driven correlatedwith word-groups of the type Ved with/by+N, e. g. stained with tears, boundby duty,etc. The distributional formula is monosemantic and isbased on the instrumental relations between the components;
· d) num+nformula, e. g. (a) two-day (beard), (a) seven-year(plan), (a) forty-hour (week) correlative with Num + N type of phrases,e. g. two days, sevenyears, etc. Adjectives of this subgroup areused only attributively;
· e) the(a+n) + -ed pattern of derivational compounds, e. g. long-legged,low-ceilinged. This structure includes two more variants; the first memberof the first component may be a numeral stem or a noun-stem (num+n)+-ed, (n+n) +-ed, e. g. one-sided, three-cornered, doll-faced,bell-shaped. Compounds of this subgroup are correlative with phrases of thetype—with (having) + A+N, with (having) + Num+N, with (having)+N+N (or N+of+N),e. g. with (or having) a low ceiling, with (or having) oneside, with (or having) three corners, with (or having) a dollface for with (or having) the face of a doll, with (or having)the shape of a bell.
· Thesystem of productive types of compound adjectives may be presented as follows(table 2).
2. Verbal-nominal compounds belong to compound nouns. They may all be described throughone general distributional structure n+nv,i. e. acombination of a simple noun-stem with a deverbal noun-stem. This formulaincludes four patterns differing in the character of the deverbal noun-stern.They are all based on verbal-nominal word-groups, built after the formula V+Nor V+prp+N:
· a) [n+v+-er)]pattern, e. g. bottle-opener, stage-manager, baby-sitter, peace-fighter,is monosemantic and is based on agcntive relations that can be interpreted as'one who does smth';
· b) [n+(v+-ing)]pattern, e. g, rocket-flying, stage-managing, ismonosemantic and may be interpreted as 'the act of doing smth';
c) [n+ (v+tion/-ment)]pattern, e. g. price-reduction,office-management, is monosemantic and may be interpreted as 'the act ofdoing smth';
d) compound nouns with the structure n+(v+ conversion), i, e. acombination of – a simplenoun-stem with a deverbal noun-stem resulting from conversion, e. g. wage-art,dog-bite, chimney-sweep. The pattern is monosemantic.
3. V e r b a l v e r b compounds are a11 derivational compound nounsbuilt after one formal n [(v+adv)+conversion] andcorrelative with phrases of the V+Adv type, a. g. a break-down from (to)break down, a hold-up from (to): hold up, a lay-out from (to) layout. The pattern ispolysemantic and is circumscribed by themanifold semantic relations typical of conversion pairs.1
4. Nominal compounds are all nouns built after the most polysemanticdistributional formula (n+n); both stems are in most cases simple, e. g. pencil-case, windmill,horse-race. Compounds of this class correlate with nominal word-groupsmostly characterized by the N+prp+N structure.
Table 3 shows the system of productive types of compound nouns of thesethree structural classes.
2.3.5Distributional formulas of Subordinative Compounds
The internalstructure of subordinative compounds is marked by a specific pattern of orderand arrangement in which the stems follow one another. The order in which thestems are placed within a compound is rigidly fixed in Modern English as thestructural centre of the word is always its second component. Stems of almostevery part of speech are found in compounds but they are combined to make upcompound words according to a set of rigid rules for every part of speech. Thechoice of stems and the rules of their arrangement and order are known asdistributional or structural formulas and patterns of compound words.
As to theorder of components subordinative compound words may be classified into twogroups:
a) Syntactic compounds whosecomponents are placed in the order that resembles the order of words in freephrases arranged according to the rules of syntax of Modern English.
The order ofthe stems in compounds, e.g. bluebell, slowcoach, mad – doctor (a+n)reminds one of the order and arrangement of the corresponding words in phraseslike a blue bell, a slow coach, a mad doctor (A+N); compounds like, e.g.know – nothing, kill-joy, tell-tale made up on the formula v+n resemblethe arrangement of words in phrases like (to) kill joy, (to) know nothing,(to) tell tales (V+N); the order of components in compounds consisting oftwo noun – stems door-handle, day-time (n+n) resembles the order ofwords in nominal phrases with the attributive function of the first noun as in stonewall, spring time, peace movement, etc. (N+N).
b) Asyntactic compounds whose stems arenot placed in the order in which the corresponding words can be broughttogether under the rules of syntax of the language. For example it isuniversally known that in free phrases adjectives cannot be modified byadjectives, noun modifiers cannot be placed before adjectives or participles,ye t this kind of asyntactic arrangement of stems is typical of compounds amongwhich we find combinations of two adjective stems, e.g. red-hot, bluish-black,pale-blue; words made up of noun – stems placed before adjective or participlestems, e.g. oil-rich, tear-stained, etc.
Both syntacticand asyntactic compound words in each part of speech should be described interms of their distributional formulas. For example, compound adjectives aremostly formed of noun, adjective or participle stems according to the formulas n+a,e.g. oil-rich, world-wide; n+ved1, e.g. snow-covered,home-grown; a+a, e.g. pale-green, red-hot, etc.
Borderlinebetween compound words and free word-groups
Compound wordsas inseparable vocabulary units taking shape in a definite system ofgrammatical forms and syntactic characteristics are generally clearlydistinguished from and often opposed to free word-groups. Their inseparabilityfinds expression in the unity of their structural, phonetic and graphicintegrity.
ChapterIV
2.4Compound words and free word groups
Compound words as inseparable vocabulary units are on the one handclearly distinguished from free word-groups by a combination of their specificstress pattern, spelling and their distributional formulas. On the other hand,compound words in Modern English lie astride the border between words andword-groups and display many features common to word-groups, thus revealingclose lies and parallelism with the system of free phrases.1 Thelinguistic analysis of extensive language data proves that there exists a rigidcorrelation between the system of free phrases andall types of subordinativecompounds. The correlation embraces both the structure and the meaning ofcompound words and seems to be the pivot point of the entire system ofproductive present-day English composition. The analysis of the structural andsemantic correlation between compound words and free word-groups enables us tofind the features most relevant to composition and set e system o; ordered rules for productive formulas afterwhich aninfinite number of new compounds constantly appear in thelanguage.
Structural Correlation.
There is a correlation and parallelism between the structure ofsubordinative compound words and corresponding phrases, which manifests it inthe morphological character of the components. Compound words are generallymade up of the stems of those parts of speech that form the corresponding freeword-groups. The stem of the central member or she head2 of theword-group becomes the structural and semantic centre of the compound, i.e. itssecond component. e.g. heart-sick, is made up of the stems of «thenoun' heart and adjective sick which form the correspondingphrase sick at heart, with the adjective sick for its head; man-madeconsists of the stems of the words that make the corresponding phrase madeby man; door-handle similarly corresponds to the handle of the door,clasp-knife to the knife that clasps, etc. In all these cases thestem of the head-member of the word-group, in our case sick-, made-, handle-becomes the structural centre of the corresponding compound, i.e. its secondcomponent.
The order of the stems coincides with the word-order in word-groups onlyin the case of syntactic compounds, such as, e.g., blackboard, mad-doctor,pickpocket, tell-tale, etc., in which the structural centre takes the sameplace as the head of corresponding word-groups.
In compounds each part of speech correlates only with certain structuraltypes of phrases. For example, productive compound adjectives reveal correlationmostly with adjectival-nominal word-groups,1 i.e. word-groups whoseheads are adjectives (or Numerals and Participles) of the type A+prp+N, Ved+by/with+N, with+A+N, e.g, adjectives oil-rich, heart-sick correspond toword-groups rich in oil, sick at heart (i.e., n+a→A+prp+N); duty-bound,smoke-filled to bound by duty, filled with smoke (i.e.,n+ved+Ved+by/with+N); low-ceilinged to with a low ceiling {[(a+n)+ed] →with+A+N}. Productive compound nouns correlate mostly withnominal word-groups (consisting of two nouns), verbal-nominal and verb-adverb word-groups,e.g… Moonlight, diving-suit, correspond to the light of the moon,a suit for diving» (i.e. n+n→N+prp+N):proof-reader,peace-fighting to (to) read proofs, (to) fight for peace(i.e., n+nv→V+N, V+prp+N), etc. So it follows that the distributionalformulas of compound words in each part of speech are circumscribed by thestructure of correlated word-groups.
Semantic Correlation.
Semantically, the relations between the components of a compound mirrorthe semantic relations between the member-words in correlated word-groups. Thesemantic relations established between the components, for example, in compoundadjectives built after n+ved formula, e.g. duty-bound, snow-coveredare circumscribed by the instrumental relations typical of the members ofcorrelated word-groups of the type Ved + by /with+N regardless of the actuallexical meanings of the stems;compound adjectives of the (a+n)+ed pattern like long-legged,straight-backed mirror possessive relations found between words incorrelated word-groups of the with+A+N type, e.g. with long legs, with astraight back; compound nouns built after the pattern n+(v+-er)—letter-writer,bottle-opener, traffic-controller display agentive semantic relationstypical of word-groups 'one who writes letters'; 'the thing that opens bottles'built after the general formula N that V+N.
Structural and semantic correlation by no means implies a one-to-onecorrespondence of each individual pattern of compound words to one word-groupformula or pattern. For example the n+nv formula of compound nounscomprises different patterns such as [n+(v+-er)] rocket-flyer,bottle- opener, cover-shooter, [n+(v+-ing] street-fighting,rocket-flying, cover-shooting; both patterns correlate in the finalanalysis with verbal-nominal word-groups of one formula—V+N or V+prp+N,e.g. toflyrockets, to fight in the streets, to shoot from a cover. However, the reverserelationship is not uncommon, e;g. one distributional formula of compoundadjectives (n+a) in words like age-long, sky-high, colour
blind corresponds to a variety of individual word-group patterns whichdiffer in the grammatical and semantic relations between member-words expressedby the preposition, thus, compounds journey-tired, girl-shy, oil-rich,world-wide correspond to tired of journey (A+of+N), shy beforegirls (A+before+N); rich in oil (A+in+N);wide as the world (A+as+N).Nominal compound made up of two simple noun-stems (n+n) may serve, asanother example of the semantic correlation between formulas of compound nounswith a variety of individual patterns of nominal word-groups. Compound nounslike doorstep, hand-bag, handcuffs incorporate manifold semanticrelations found between member-words of various patterns of the general formulaof word-groups N+prp+N. Nominal compounds appear to express freely in aconcise form what can be expressed only in a more elaborate and complicatedperiphrastic way by word-groups. «It should be remembered that thesemantic relations in some cases may be interpreted differently.
Even the few examples given as illustration lead us to the conclusionthat the structure of compound words, as a rule, is more concise and of muchwider semantic range than the structure of correlated word-groups due to thefact that compound words do not require any elaborates way to express therelationship between their components except their order. Therefore compoundwords which establish regular correlative relations with word-groups are on theone hand motivated and on the other hand serve as patterns, or sets ofstructural and semantic rules guiding the spontaneous formation of new compoundwords. Consequently motivation and regular semantic and structural correlationbetween compound words and word-groups may be regarded as factors which arcmost conducive to high productivity of compound words. It is natural thatformulas which do not establish such regular correlative» relations andwhich result in compound words characterized by lack or very low degree ofmotivation, must he regarded as unproductive, for example, compound nouns builtafter a+n formula, e. g. blackbird, bluebell, mad-doctor, etc.,are marked by lack of motivation or high degree of idiomaticity, hence theformula a+n for compound nouns is unproductive for Modern English.
ChapterV
2.5Diachronic approach to compound words
Like all other linguistic phenomena compounding may be approachedsynchronically and diachronically. If a synchronic treatment concentrates onstructural and semantic features relevant for productive patterning of compoundwords, the diachronic treatment is concerned with the various changes compoundwords undergo in the course of time and the way compound words appear in thelanguage. Once a compound has been formed it is subject to all the phonologicalchanges affecting English polysyllabic words. Various changes in the phoneticstructure and stress pattern of compound words may result in a number ofchanges in its morphemic structure. The separate morphemes in a compound maybecome fused or even lost altogether; the meanings of the components may alsofuse in the course of time into a newer meaning or become forgotten. As aresult of this process, known as the process of simplification, compound wordsmay undergo such radical changes that they may be even transformed into derivedor simple words.[1]
Productive types of compound nouns Table 3 Free Phrases Compound Nouns Compounds Proper
Derivational
Compounds Pattern
/> A. Verbal-Nominal Phrases
1. the reducer of price
/> to reduce 2. the reducing of prices
/> prices 3. the reduction of prices
to shake 4. the shake of hands
hands
1. price-reducer
2. price-reducing
3. price-reduction
4. hand-shake
[n + (v+- er)]
[n+ -ing)]
[n+(v+--tion/ -ment)]
[n + (v+ conversion) ]
B. Verb-Adverb Phrases
to break down
to cast away
to run away
a break-down
a castaway
a runaway
[(v+ adv) + conversion ]
C. Nominal Phrases
1. a tray or ashes
2. the neck of the bottle
3. a house in the country;
a chair with arms
4. a ship run by steam
5. the doctor is a woman
6. a fish resembling a sword
1. ash-tray
2. bottle-neck
3. country-house;
arm-chair
4. steamship
5. woman-doctor
6. sword-fish
[n2 + n1]
There are many words in Modem English that do not in any way differ fromthe bulk of simple words and yet have undergone the process of simplificationand may be traced back to their original compound structure.
Ways of Forming Compounds. Sources of Compounds
The actual process of building compound words may take different forms:
1) Compound words a rule are built spontaneously after productivedistributional formulas of the given period. Formulas productive at one timemay lose their productivity at another period. Thus at one time the process ofbuilding verbs by compounding adverbial and verbal stems was productive, andnumerous compound verbs like, e, g. outgrow, overturn, overthrow(adv+v), were formed. The structure ceased to be productive and today noverbs are built in this way.
2) Compounds may be the result of a gradual process of semantic isolationand structural fusion of free word-groups. Such compounds as forget-me-not—'a small plant with blue1 flowers', scarecrow (from anearlier scare-the-crows)—'a figure used to scare birds away from crops',pickpocket (from pick the pocket)—'one who steals from pockets',bridesmaid—'an unmarried woman attending the bride at a wedding', bull's-eye—'thecentre of a target; a kind of hard, globular candy", mainland—'acontinent' all go back to free phrases which became semantically andstructurally isolated in the course of time. The words that once made up thesephrases have lost, within these particular formations, their integrity, theirpart-of-speech meaning and the whole phrase has become isolated in form,specialized in meaning andthus turned into an inseparable unit—a wordacquiring semantic and morphological unity.
Most of the syntactic compound nouns of the (a+n) structure, e. g.bluebell, blackboard, mad-doctor, are the result of such semantic andstructural isolation of free word-groups; to give but one more example—highwaywas once actually a high way for it was raised above the surroundingcountryside for better drainage and ease of travel. Now we use highwaywithout any idea of the original sense of the first element.1
Productive types of compound adjectives Table 3Free Phrases Compound Adjectives Compounds Proper Derivational Compounds Pattern Semantic Relations A. as white as snow 1. snow-white —
n+a Relations of resemblance B. free from carp; rich in oil; greedy for power; tired of pleasure 2. care-free oil-rich power-greedy pleasure-tired —
n+a Various adverbial relations C. covered with snow; bound by duty
3. snow-covered
duty -bound —
n +Ved Instrumental (or agentive relations) D. two days 4. (a) two-day (beard) (a) seven-year (plan) —
num + n Quantitative relations E. with (having) long, legs
— 5. long-legged
(a+ n) +
+ed Possessive relations
Conclusion
Modern Englishis very rich in Compound words. Compound words are made up by joining two ormore stems.
Ex: taxi-driver,in German Weltoffenheit, in Uzbek кунгабоқар.
A compoundword has a single semantic structure. We distinguish the meaning of the compoundwords from the combined lexical meaning of its components. Ex: “pencil-case” isa case for pencils. A change in the order of components of compound wordsbrings a change in the lexical meaning.
Ex: life-boat– “a boat of special construction for saving lives. Boat-life – life on boardof a ship.
Compound wordsare classified into completely motivated partially motivated and non-motivatedcompound words”.
In completelymotivated compound words the lexical meaning of compounds is easily deducedfrom the lexical meanings of the stems.
Ex: book-case,door-handle.
German Lesesaal.
The compoundwords “a flower-bed, walk-up are partially motivated compounds because we canguess their meaning partially”. The compounds in which the connection betweenthe meaning and structure and the meanings of components of compounds can notseen from the meaning of its components are called non-motivated compoundwords. Ex: wall-flower – a woman who remains at wall and is not invited to adance.
Uzbek andGerman compounds don’t have non-motivation. Compound words may be classifiedfrom the functional point of view or according to their belonging to differentparts of speech.
Many ofEnglish and German compounds belong to nouns and adjectives while Uzbekcompounds belong to nouns, adjectives and verbs:
Noun:looking-glass, armchair, homework.
Arbeitkleidung, Naturwissenschaft(German).
хонтахта, сувилон(Uzbek).
Adjective:hard-working, well-behaved, dry-drink.
hell – grün,weltbekannt.
ҳаворанг, халқаро, меҳнатсевар.
Adverb:indoors, within, outside.
аллаким, шуерда, у ерда.
From the pointof view how the components are joined together the compound words may beclassified into: a) components whose components are joined with a dieEntwicklungsländer, der Landbau.
This is alsoone of the criteria of distinguishing of compounds from word groups.
Like otherlinguistic phenomena we may approach to the study of compounds synchronicallyand diachronically. Synchronically we study the structural and semanticpatterns of compound words while diachronically we study the various changescompound words undergone on the course of time and the way compound wordsappear in the language.
Bibliography
1. Karimov I.A.Harmoniously Developed Generation is the basis of Progress of Uzbekistan. T.“Shark” 1998. p. 9.
2. Buranov J.B, MuminovA.A. Practical Course in English Lexicology. T. “Ukituvchi” 1990. p. 54.
3. Arnold I. V. TheEnglish Word. M. “BШ”. 1973. р. 60.
4. Berezin F.M. Lectures onLinguistics. M. Higher school Publishing House. 1969. p. 95.
5. Гинзбург Р.З. и др. Лексикологияанглийского языка. М. 1979.
6. Арбекова Т.И. Лексикологияанглийского языка. М. 1977.
7. Мешков А.Д. Словообразованиесовременного английского языка. М. 1976. стр. 33.
8. Смирницкий Лексикологияанглийского языка. М. 1956. стр. 33.
9. Хидекель С.С. Лексикология ввыдержках и извлечениях. Л. 1969.
10. Glipson G.B. Fastideas for Busy Teachers. USA. Good Apple. 1989. p. 36.
11. Ирисқулов М.Тилшуносликка кириш. Т. Ўқитувчи. 1992. 111 б
12. Канцельсон С.Д. Содержание слова,значение и обозначение. М. 1965.
13. Ярцева В.Н. Историческаяморфология английского языка. М. 1960.
14 Х. Қ. Қаршибоев Битирувмалакавий ишларни бажариш ва ҳимоя қилишга доир услубийкўрсатмалар. Гулистон 2003.
15. Журнал.
16. Турсунов, Мухторов Ш,Раҳматуллаев. Ҳозирги ўзбек адабий тили. Т. “Ўзбекистон”. 1992. 216б
17. E. Nida. MorphologyUniversity of Michigan. Press. 1976.
18. Т.М. Беляева «Вопросы английскогоязыка в синхронии и диахронии». Л. 1967. стр. 89.
19. Мюллер. В.К. «Англо – Русскийсловарь» М. 1962.
20. The World Book Encyclopedia. USA. 1994. №. G.G. Volume p/ 905/
21. М. Эшниёзова Қўшмасўз Микросинтагматик муносататига доир. 2004. №1 24-26 бб
22. Internet. Khan M.A. Liggt.Privacy Policy. Terms of Use. www.amjbot.org. 2003. № 90 р
23. Internet: www.wikipedia.com/English/compounds/.htm
24. Internet: www mpsttu.ru/works/english lexicology/ htm
25. Internet:http://www.yahoo.com/english/.htm