Министерствообразования Республики Беларусь
Учреждениеобразования
«Гомельскийгосударственный университет
им. Ф. Скорины»
Филологическийфакультет
Курсоваяработа
CHANGESAND SPECIMENS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Исполнитель:
Студенткагруппы К-53 Козлова Т.Е.
Гомель2006
Содержание
Introduction
1 The orthography of English
2 ENGLISH OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
3 ENGLISH OF THE SEVENTEENTHCENTURY
4 ENGLISH OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
5. ENGLISH OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
6. ENGLISH OF THE FOURTEENTHCENTURY
7.ENGLISH OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
8. ENGLISH, OR ANGLO-SAXON, OF THETWELFTH CENTURY
9. ANGLO-SAXON OF THE ELEVENTHCENTURY, COMPARED WITH ENGLISH
10. ANGLO-SAXON IN THE TIME OF KINGALFRED
Conclusion
Literature
INTRODUCTION
«Quotenim verba, et nonnunquam in deterius, hoc, quo vivimus, saeculo, partim aliqa,partim nulla necessitate cogente, mutata sunt?»--ROB. AINSWORTH: Lat.Dict., 4to; Praef., p. xi.
Inthe use of language, every one chooses his words from that common stock whichhe has learned, and applies them in practice according to his own habits andnotions. If the style of different writers of the same age is various, muchgreater is the variety which appears in the productions of different ages.Hence the date of a book may often be very plausibly conjectured from thepeculiarities of its style. As to what is best in itself, or best adapted tothe subject in hand, every writer must endeavour to become his own judge. Hewho, in any sort of composition, would write with a master's hand, must firstapply himself to books with a scholar's diligence. He must think it worth hiswhile to inform himself, that he may be critical. Desiring to give the studentall the advantage, entertainment, and satisfaction, that can be expected from awork of this kind, I shall subjoin a few brief specimens in illustration ofwhat has been said in the foregoing chapter. The order of time will be followedinversely; and, as Saxon characters are not very easily obtained, or very aptto be read, the Roman letters will be employed for the few examples to whichthe others would be more appropriate. But there are some peculiarities ofancient usage in English, which, for the information of the young reader, it isproper in the first place to explain.
Withrespect to the letters, there are several changes to be mentioned. (1.) Thepages of old books are often crowded with capitals: it was at one time thecustom to distinguish all nouns, and frequently verbs, or any other importantwords, by heading them with a great letter. (2.) The letter Ess, of the lowercase, had till lately two forms, the long and the short, as [tall-s] and s; theformer very nearly resembling the small f, and the latter, its own capital. Theshort s was used at the end of words, and the long [tall-s], in other places;but the latter is now laid aside, in favour of the more distinctive form. (3.)The letters I and J were formerly considered as one and the same. Hence we findhallelujah for halleluiah, Iohn for John, iudgement for judgement, &c. Andin many dictionaries, the words beginning with J are still mixed with thosewhich begin with I. (4.) The letters U and V were mixed in like manner, and forthe same reason; the latter being a consonant power given to the former, and atlength distinguished from it by a different form. Or rather, the figure of thecapital seems to have been at last appropriated to the one, and that of thesmall letter to the other. But in old books the forms of these two letters arecontinually confounded or transposed. Hence it is, that our Double-u iscomposed of two Vees; which, as we see in old books, were sometimes printedseparately: as, VV, for W; or vv, for w.
1THE ORTHOGRAPHY OF ENGLISH
Theorthography of our language, rude and unsettled as it still is in manyrespects, was formerly much more variable and diverse. In books a hundred yearsold or more, we often find the most common words spelled variously by the samewriter, and even upon the very same page. With respect to the forms of words, afew particulars may here be noticed: (1.) The article an, from which the n wasdropped before words beginning with a consonant sound, is often found in oldbooks where a would be more proper; as, an heart, an help, an hill, an one, anuse. (2.) Till the seventeenth century, the possessive case was written withoutthe apostrophe; being formed at different times, in es, is, ys, or s, like theplural; and apparently without rule or uniformity in respect to the doubling ofthe final consonant: as Goddes, Godes, Godis, Godys, or Gods, for God's; somannes, mannis, mannys or mans, for man's. Dr. Ash, whose English Grammar wasin some repute in the latter part of the eighteenth century, argued against theuse of the apostrophe, alleging that it was seldom used to distinguish thepossessive case till about the beginning of that century; and he thenprophesied that the time would come, when correct writers would lay it asideagain, as a strange corruption, an improper «departure from the originalformation» of that case of English nouns. And, among the speculations ofthese latter days, I have somewhere seen an attempt to disparage this usefulsign, and explode it, as an unsightly thing never well established. It does notindeed, like a syllabic sign, inform the ear or affect the sound; but still itis useful, because it distinguishes to the eye, not only the case, but the number,of the nouns thus marked. Pronouns, being different in their declension, do notneed it, and should therefore always be written without it.
Thecommon usage of those who have spoken English, has always inclined rather tobrevity than to melody; contraction and elision of the ancient terminations ofwords, constitute no small part of the change which has taken place, or of thedifference which perhaps always existed between the solemn and the familiarstyle. In respect to euphony, however, these terminations have certainlynothing to boast; nor does the earliest period of the language appear to bethat in which they were the most generally used without contraction. Thatdegree of smoothness of which the tongue was anciently susceptible, hadcertainly no alliance with these additional syllables. The long sonorousendings which constitute the declensions and conjugations of the most admiredlanguages, and which seem to chime so well with the sublimity of the Greek, themajesty of the Latin, the sweetness of the Italian, the dignity of the Spanish,or the polish of the French, never had any place in English. The inflectionsgiven to our words never embraced any other vowel power than that of the short eor i; and even, this we are inclined to dispense with, whenever we can; so thatmost of our grammatical inflections are, to the ear, nothing but consonantsblended with the final syllables of the words to which they are added. Ing forthe first participle, er for the comparative degree, and est for thesuperlative, are indeed added as whole syllables; but the rest, as d or ed forpreterits and perfect participles, s or es for the plural number of nouns, orfor the third person singular of verbs, and st or est for the second personsingular of verbs, nine times in ten, fall into the sound or syllable withwhich the primitive word terminates. English verbs, as they are now commonly used,run through their entire conjugation without acquiring a single syllable frominflection, except sometimes when the sound of d, s, or st cannot be added tothem.
Thissimplicity, so characteristic of our modern English, as well as of the Saxontongue, its proper parent, is attended with advantages that go far tocompensate for all that is consequently lost in euphony, or in the liberty oftransposition. Our formation of the moods and tenses, by means of a fewseparate auxiliaries, all monosyllabic, and mostly without inflection, is notonly simple and easy, but beautiful, chaste, and strong. In my opinion, ourgrammarians have shown far more affection for the obsolete or obsolescentterminations en, eth, est, and edst, than they really deserve. Till the beginningof the sixteenth century, en was used to mark the plural number of verbs, as, theysayen for they say; after which, it appears to have been dropped. Before thebeginning of the seventeenth century, s or es began to dispute with th or eth theright of forming the third person singular of verbs; and, as the Bible andother grave books used only the latter, a clear distinction obtained, betweenthe solemn and the familiar style, which distinction is well known at this day.Thus we have, He runs, walks, rides, reaches, &c., for the one; and, Herunneth, walketh, rideth, reacheth, &c., for the other. About the sametime, or perhaps earlier, the use of the second person singular began to beavoided in polite conversation, by the substitution of the plural verb andpronoun; and, when used in poetry, it was often contracted, so as to preventany syllabic increase. In old books, all verbs and participles that were intendedto be contracted in pronunciation, were contracted also, in some way, by the writer:as, «call'd, carry'd, sacrific'd;» «fly'st, ascrib'st,cryd'st;» «tost, curst, blest, finisht;» and others innumerable.All these, and such as are like them, we now pronounce in the same way, butusually write differently; as, called,carried, sacrificed; fliest, ascribest,criettst; tossed, cursed, blessed, finished. Most of these topics will be furthernoticed in the Grammar.2ENGLISH OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
1.QueenVictoria's Answer to an Address.--Example written in 1837.
«Ithank you for your condolence upon the death of his late Majesty, for thejustice which you render to his character, and to the measures of his reign,and for your warm congratulations upon my accession to the throne. I join inyour prayers for the prosperity of my reign, the best security for which is tobe found in reverence for our holy religion, and in the observance of itsduties.»--VICTORIA, to the Friends' Society.
2.FromPresident Adams's Eulogy on Lafayette.--Written in 1834.
«Pronouncehim one of the first men of his age, and you have yet not done him justice. Tryhim by that test to which he sought in vain to stimulate the vulgar and selfishspirit of Napoleon; class him among the men who, to compare and seatthemselves, must take in the compass of all ages; turn back your eyes upon therecords of time; summon from the creation of the world to this day the mightydead of every age and every clime; and where, among the race of merely mortalmen, shall one be found, who, as the benefactor of his kind, shall claim totake precedence of Lafayette?»--JOHN QUINCY ADAMS.
3.FromPresident Jackson's Proclamation against Nullification.--1832.
«No,we have not erred! The Constitution is still the object of our reverence, thebond of our Union, our defence in danger, the source of our prosperity inpeace. It shall descend, as we have received it, uncorrupted by sophisticalconstruction, to our posterity: and the sacrifices of local interest, of Stateprejudices, of personal animosities, that were made to bring it into existence,will again be patriotically offered for its support.»--ANDREW JACKSON.
4.Froma Note on one of Robert Hall's Sermons.--Written about 1831.
«Afterhe had written down the striking apostrophe which occurs at about page 76 ofmost of the editions--'Eternal God! on what are thine enemies intent! what arethose enterprises of guilt and horror, that, for the safety of theirperformers, require to be enveloped in a darkness which the eye of Heaven mustnot penetrate!'--he asked, 'Did I say penetrate, sir, when I preached, it?''Yes.' 'Do you think, sir, I may venture toalter it? for no man who consideredthe force of the English language, would use a word of three syllables there,but from absolute necessity.' 'You are doubtless at liberty to alter it, if youthink well.' 'Then be so good, sir, as to take your pencil, and for penetrate putpierce; pierce is the word, sir, and the only word to be usedthere.'»--OLINTHUS GREGORY.
5.KingWilliam's Answer to an Address.--Example written in 1830.
«Ithank you sincerely for your condolence with me, on account of the loss which Ihave sustained, in common with my people, by the death of my lamented brother,his late Majesty. The assurances which you have conveyed to me, of loyalty andaffectionate attachment to my person, are very gratifying to my feelings. Youmay rely upon my favour and protection, and upon my anxious endeavours topromote morality and true piety among all classes of mysubjects.»--WILLIAM IV, to the Friends.
6.Reignof George IV, 1830 back to 1820.--Example written in 1827.
«Thatmorning, thou, that slumbered[48] not before, Nor slept, great Ocean I laid thywaves to rest, And hushed thy mighty minstrelsy. No breath Thy deep composurestirred, no fin, no oar; Like beauty newly dead, so calm, so still, So lovely,thou, beneath the light that fell From angel-chariots sentinelled on high,Reposed, and listened, and saw thy living change, Thy dead arise. Charybdislistened, and Scylla; And savage Euxine on the Thracian beach Lay motionless:and every battle ship Stood still; and every ship of merchandise, And all thatsailed, of every name, stood still.» ROBERT POLLOK: Course of Time, BookVII, line 634-647.
«Thereis, it will be confessed, a delicate sensibility to character, a sober desireof reputation, a wish to possess the esteem of the wise and good, felt by thepurest minds, which is at the farthest remove from arrogance or vanity. Thehumility of a noble mind scarcely dares approve of itself, until it has securedthe approbation of others. Very different is that restless desire ofdistinction, that passion for theatrical display, which inflames the heart andoccupies the whole attention of vain men. * * * The truly good man is jealousover himself, lest the notoriety of his best actions, by blending itself withtheir motive, should diminish their value; the vain man performs the sameactions for the sake of that notoriety. The good man quietly discharges hisduty, and shuns ostentation; the vain man considers every good deed lost thatis not publickly displayed. The one is intent upon realities, the other uponsemblances: the one aims to be virtuous, the other to appear so.»--ROBERTHALL: Sermon on Modern Infidelity.
«Ofall the dispositions and habits which lead to political prosperity, Religionand Morality are indispensable supports. In vain would that man claim thetribute of patriotism, who should labour to subvert these great pillars ofhuman happiness, these firmest props of the duties of men and citizens. Themere politician, equally with the pious man, ought to respect and cherish them.A volume could not trace all their connexions with private and publickfelicity. Let it simply be asked, where is the security for property, forreputation, for life, if the sense of religious obligation desert the oathswhich are the instruments of investigation in courts of justice? And let uswith caution indulge the supposition, that morality can be maintained withoutreligion. Whatever may be conceded to the influence of refined education onminds of a peculiar structure; reason and experience both forbid us to expectthat national morality can prevail in exclusion of religiousprinciple.»--GEORGE WASHINGTON.
«Thathe always wrote as he would think it necessary to write now, cannot beaffirmed; his instructions were such as the character of his readers madeproper. That general knowledge which now circulates in common talk, was in histime rarely to be found. Men not professing learning, were not ashamed ofignorance; and in the female world, any acquaintance with books wasdistinguished only to be censured. His purpose was to infuse literarycuriosity, by gentle and unsuspected conveyance, into the gay, the idle, andthe wealthy; he therefore presented knowledge in the most alluring form, notlofty and austere, but accessible and familiar. When he shewed them theirdefects, he shewed them likewise that they might easily be supplied. Hisattempt succeeded; inquiry was awakened, and comprehension expanded. Anemulation of intellectual elegance was excited, and from this time to our own,life has been gradually exalted, and conversation purified andenlarged.»--SAMUEL JOHNSON: Lives, p. 321.
Reignof George II, 1760 back to 1727.--Example written in 1751.
«WeBritons in our time have been remarkable borrowers, as our multiform Languagemay sufficiently shew. Our Terms in polite Literature prove, that this camefrom Greece; our terms in Music and Painting, that these came from Italy; ourPhrases in Cookery and War, that we learnt these from the French; and ourphrases in Navigation, that we were taught by the Flemings and Low Dutch. Thesemany and very different Sources of our Language may be the cause, why it is sodeficient in Regularity and Analogy. Yet we have this advantage to compensatethe defect, that what we want in Elegance, we gain in Copiousness, in whichlast respect few Languages will be found superior to our own.»--JAMESHARRIS: Hermes, Book iii, Ch. v, p. 408.
Reignof George I, 1727 back to 1714.--Example written about 1718.
«Thereis a certain coldness and indifference in the phrases of our Europeanlanguages, when they are compared with the Oriental forms of speech: and ithappens very luckily, that the Hebrew idioms ran into the English tongue, witha particular grace and beauty. Our language has received innumerable eleganciesand improvements from that infusion of Hebraisms, which are derived to it outof the poetical passages in holy writ. They give a force and energy to ourexpressions, warm and animate our language, and convey our thoughts in moreardent and intense phrases, than any that are to be met with in ourtongue.»--JOSEPH
ADDISON:Evidences, p. 192.
Reignof Queen Anne, 1714 to 1702.--Example written in 1708.
«Someby old words to Fame have made pretence, Ancients in phrase, mere moderns intheir sense; Such labour'd nothings, in so strange a style, Amaze th'unlearn'd, and make the learned smile.» «In words, as fashions, thesame rule will hold; Alike fantastick, if too new or old: Be not the first bywhom the new are try'd, Nor yet the last to lay the old aside.» ALEXANDERPOPE: Essay on Criticism, l. 324-336.3ENGLISH OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY
«Andwhen we see a Man of Milton's Wit Chime in with such a Herd, and Help on the Cryagainst Hirelings! We find How Easie it is for Folly and Knavery to Meet, andthat they are Near of Kin, tho they bear Different Aspects. Therefor since Miltonhas put himself upon a Level with the Quakers in this, I will let them gotogether. And take as little Notice of his Buffoonry, as of their Dulness againstTythes. Ther is nothing worth Quoting in his Lampoon against the Hirelings. Butwhat ther is of Argument in it, is fully Consider'd in whatfollows.»--CHARLES LESLIE: Divine Right of Tithes, Pref., p. xi.
Reignof James II, 1689 back to 1685.--Example written in 1685.
«Hisconversation, wit, and parts, His knowledge in the noblest useful arts, Weresuch, dead authors could not give; But habitudes of those who live; Who,lighting him, did greater lights receive: He drain'd from all, and all theyknew; His apprehension quick, his judgment true: That the most learn'd withshame confess His knowledge more, his reading only less.» JOHN DRYDEN: Odeto the Memory of Charles II; Poems, p. 84.
Reignof Charles II, 1685 to 1660.--Example from a Letter to the Earl of Sunderland,dated,
«Philadelphia,28th 5th mo. July, 1683.»
«AndI will venture to say, that by the help of God, and such noble Friends, I willshow a Province in seven years, equal to her neighbours of forty yearsplanting. I have lay'd out the Province into Countys. Six are begun to beseated; they lye on the great river, and are planted about six miles back. Thetown platt is a mile long, and two deep,--has a navigable river on each side,the least as broad as the Thames at Woolwych, from three to eight fathom water.There is built about eighty houses, and I have settled at least three hundredfarmes contiguous to it.»--WILLIAM PENN. The Friend, Vol. vii, p. 179.
Froman Address or Dedication to Charles II.--Written in 1675.
«Thereis no [other] king in the world, who can so experimentally testify of God'sprovidence and goodness; neither is there any [other], who rules so many freepeople, so many true Christians: which thing renders thy government morehonourable, thyself more considerable, than the accession of many nationsfilled with slavish and superstitious souls.»--ROBERT BARCLAY: Apology, p.viii.
Thefollowing example, from the commencement of Paradise Lost, first published in1667, has been cited by several authors, to show how large a proportion of ourlanguage is of Saxon origin. The thirteen words in Italics are the only ones inthis passage, which seem to have been derived from any other source.
«Ofman's first disobedience, and the fruit Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal tasteBrought death into the world, and all our woe, With loss of Eden; till onegreater Man Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, Sing, heav'nly Muse, thaton the secret top Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire That shepherd, who firsttaught the chosen seed, In the beginning, how the Heav'ns and Earth Rose out ofChaos.»--MILTON: Paradise Lost,
BookI.
Exampleswritten during Cromwell's Protectorate, 1660 to 1650.
«TheQueene was pleased to shew me the letter, the seale beinge a Roman eagle,havinge characters about it almost like the Greeke. This day, in theafternoone, the vice-chauncellor came to me and stayed about four hours withme; in which tyme we conversed upon the longe debates.»--WHITELOCKE.Bucke's Class. Gram., p. 149.
«Iam yet heere, and have the States of Holland ingaged in a more than ordnarymaner, to procure me audience of the States Generall. Whatever happen, theeffects must needes be good.»--STRICKLAND: Bucke's Classical Gram., p.149.
Reignof Charles I, 1648 to 1625.--Example from Ben Jonson's Grammar, written about1634; but the orthography is more modern.
«Thesecond and third person singular of the present are made of the first, byadding est and eth; which last is sometimes shortened into s. It seemeth tohave been poetical licence which first introduced this abbreviation of thethird person into use; but our best grammarians have condemned it upon someoccasions, though perhaps not to be absolutely banished the common and familiarstyle.»
«Thepersons plural keep the termination of the first person singular. In formertimes, till about the reign of Henry the eighth, they were wont to be formed byadding en; thus, loven, sayen, complainen. But now (whatever is the cause) ithath quite grown out of use, and that other so generally prevailed, that I darenot presume to set this afoot again: albeit (to tell you my opinion) I ampersuaded that the lack hereof well considered, will be found a great blemishto our tongue. For seeing time and person be, as it were, the right and lefthand of a verb, what can the maiming bring else, but a lameness to the wholebody?»--Book i, Chap. xvi.
Reignof James I, 1625 to 1603.--From an Advertisement, dated 1608.
«Isvppose it altogether needlesse (Christian Reader) by commending M. WilliamPerkins, the Author of this booke, to wooe your holy affection, which eitherhimselfe in his life time by his Christian conversation hath woon in you, orsithence his death, the neuer-dying memorie of his excellent knowledge, hisgreat humilitie, his sound religion, his feruent zeale, his painefull labours,in the Church of God, doe most iustly challenge at your hands: onely in oneword, I dare be bold to say of him as in times past Nazianzen spake of Athanasius.His life was a good definition of a true minister and preacher of theGospell.»--The Printer to the Reader.
Exampleswritten about the end of Elizabeth's reign--1603.
«Somesay, That euer 'gainst that season comes Wherein our Saviour's Birth iscelebrated, The Bird of Dawning singeth all night long; And then, say they, noSpirit dares walk abroad: The nights are wholsom, then no Planets strike, NoFairy takes, nor Witch hath pow'r to charm; So hallow'd and so gracious is the time.»SHAKSPEARE: Hamlet.
«Thesea, with such a storme as his bare head In hell-blacke night indur'd, wouldhaue buoy'd up And quench'd the stelled fires. Yet, poore old heart, he holpethe heuens to raine. If wolues had at thy gate howl'd that sterne time, Thoushouldst haue said, Good porter, turne the key.» SHAKSPEARE: Lear.4ENGLISH OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY
Reignof Elizabeth, 1603 back to 1558.--Example written in 1592.
«Asfor the soule, it is no accidentarie qualitie, but a spirituall and inuisibleessence or nature, subsisting by it selfe. Which plainely appeares in that thesoules of men haue beeing and continuance as well forth of the bodies of men asin the same; and are as wel subiect to torments as the bodie is. And whereas wecan and doe put in practise sundrie actions of life, sense, motion,vnderstanding, we doe it onely by the power and vertue of the soule. Henceariseth the difference betweene the soules of men, and beasts. The soules ofmen are substances: but the soules of other creatures seeme not to besubstances; because they haue no beeing out of the bodies in which theyare.»--WILLIAM PERKINS: Theol. Works, folio, p. 155.
Exampleswritten about the beginning of Elizabeth's reign.--1558.
«Whocan perswade, when treason is aboue reason; and mighte ruleth righte; and it ishad for lawfull, whatsoever is lustfull; and commotioners are better thancommissioners; and common woe is named common weale?»--SIR JOHN CHEKE.«If a yong jentleman will venture him selfe into the companie of ruffians,it is over great a jeopardie, lest their facions, maners, thoughts, taulke, anddedes, will verie sone be over like.»--ROGER ASCHAM.
Reignof Mary the Bigot, 1558 to 1553.--Example written about 1555.
«Andafter that Philosophy had spoken these wordes the said companye of the musyspoeticall beynge rebukyd and sad, caste downe their countenaunce to the grounde,and by blussyng confessed their shamefastnes, and went out of the dores. But I(that had my syght dull and blynd wyth wepyng, so that I knew not what womanthis was hauyng soo great aucthoritie) was amasyd or astonyed, and lokyngdowneward, towarde the ground, I began pryvyle to look what thyng she wouldsave ferther.»--COLVILLE: Version from Boethius: Johnson's Hist. of E. L.,p. 29.
Examplereferred by Dr. Johnson to the year 1553.
«Pronunciationis an apte orderinge bothe of the voyce, countenaunce, and all the whole bodye,accordynge to the worthinea of such woordes and mater as by speache aredeclared. The vse hereof is suche for anye one that liketh to haue prayse fortellynge his tale in open assemblie, that hauing a good tongue, and a comelye countenaunce,he shal be thought to passe all other that haue not the like vtteraunce:thoughe they have muche better learning.»--DR. WILSON: Johnson's Hist. E.L., p. 45.
Reignof Edward VI, 1553 to 1547.--Example written about 1550.
«Whothat will followe the graces manyfolde Which are in vertue, shall findeauauncement: Wherefore ye fooles that in your sinne are bolde, Ensue yewisdome, and leaue your lewde intent, Wisdome is the way of men most excellent:Therefore haue done, and shortly spede your pace, To quaynt your self andcompany with grace.» ALEXANDER BARCLAY: Johnson's Hist. E. L., p. 44.
Reignof Henry VIII, 1547 to 1509.--Example dated 1541.
«Lethym that is angry euen at the fyrste consyder one of these thinges, that likeas he is a man, so is also the other, with whom he is angry, and therefore itis as lefull for the other to be angry, as unto hym: and if he so be, thanshall that anger be to hym displeasant, and stere hym more to beangrye.»--SIR THOMAS ELLIOTT: Castel of Helthe.
Exampleof the earliest English Blank Verse; written about 1540.
Thesupposed author died in 1541, aged 38. The piece from which these lines aretaken describes the death of Zoroas, an Egyptian astronomer, slain inAlexander's first battle with the Persians.
«ThePersians waild such sapience to foregoe; And very sone the Macedonians wisht Hewould have lived; king Alexander selfe Demde him a man unmete to dye at all;Who wonne like praise for conquest of his yre, As for stoute men in field thatday subdued, Who princes taught how to discerne a man, That in his head so rarea jewel beares; But over all those same Camenes,[49] those same Divine Camenes,whose honour he procurde, As tender parent doth his daughters weale, Lamented,and for thankes, all that they can, Do cherish hym deceast, and sett hym free,From dark oblivion of devouring death.» Probably written by SIR THOMAS
WYAT.
ALetter written from prison, with a coal. The writer, Sir Thomas More, whoseworks, both in prose and verse, were considered models of pure and elegantstyle, had been Chancellor of England, and the familiar confidant of HenryVIII, by whose order he was beheaded in 1535.
«Myneown good doughter, our Lorde be thanked I am in good helthe of bodye, and ingood quiet of minde: and of worldly thynges I no more desyer then I haue. Ibeseche hym make you all mery in the hope of heauen. And such thynges as Isomewhat longed to talke with you all, concerning the worlde to come, our Lordeput theim into your myndes, as I truste he doth and better to by hys holyspirite: who blesse you and preserue you all. Written wyth a cole by yourtender louing father, who in hys pore prayers forgetteth none of you all, noryour babes, nor your nources, nor your good husbandes, nor your good husbandesshrewde wyues, nor your fathers shrewde wyfe neither, nor our other frendes.And thus fare ye hartely well for lacke of paper. THOMAS MORE,knight.»--Johnson's Hist. E. Lang., p. 42.
FromMore's Description of Richard III.--Probably written about 1520.
«Richardethe third sonne, of whom we nowe entreate, was in witte and courage egall witheither of them, in bodye and prowesse farre vnder them bothe, little ofstature, ill fetured of limmes, croke backed, his left shoulder much higherthan his right, hard fauoured of visage, and such as is in states calledwarlye, in other menne otherwise, he was malicious, wrathfull, enuious, andfrom afore his birth euer frowarde. Hee was close and secrete, a deepdissimuler, lowlye of counteynaunce, arrogant of heart--dispitious and cruell,not for euill will alway, but after for ambicion, and either for the suretieand encrease of his estate. Frende and foo was muche what indifferent, wherehis aduauntage grew, he spared no mans deathe, whose life withstoode hispurpose. He slew with his owne handes king Henry the sixt, being prisoner inthe Tower.
Fromhis description of Fortune, written about the year 1500.
»Fortuneis stately, solemne, prowde, and hye: And rychesse geueth, to haue seruycetherefore. The nedy begger catcheth an half peny: Some manne a thousaudepounde, some lesse some more. But for all that she kepeth euer in store, Fromeuery manne some parcell of his wyll, That he may pray therefore and serve herstyll. Some manne hath good, but chyldren hath he none. Some manne hath both,but he can get none health. Some hath al thre, but vp to honours trone, Can henot crepe, by no maner of stelth. To some she sendeth chyldren, ryches, welthe,Honour, woorshyp, and reuerence all hys lyfe: But yet she pyncheth hym with a shrewdewife." SIR THOMAS MORE.
5.ENGLISH OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY
Examplefor the reign of Henry VII, who was crowned on Bosworth field, 1485, and whodied in 1509.
«Whereforand forasmoche as we haue sent for our derrest wif, and for our derrest moder,to come unto us, and that we wold have your advis and counsail also in sochematters as we haue to doo for the subduying of the rebelles, we praie you,that, yeving your due attendaunce vppon our said derrest wif and lady moder, yecome with thaym unto us; not failing herof as ye purpose to doo us plaisir.Yeven undre our signett, at our Castell of Kenelworth, the xiii daie ofMaye.»--HENRY VII: Letter to the Earl of Ormond: Bucke's Classical Gram.,p. 147.
Examplefor the short reign of Richard III,--from 1485 to 1483.
«Rightreverend fader in God, right trusty and right wel-beloved, we grete yow wele,and wol and charge you that under oure greate seale, being in your warde, ye domake in all haist our lettres of proclamation severally to be directed unto theshirrefs of everie countie within this oure royaume.»--RICHARD III: Letterto his Chancellor.
Reignof Edward IV,--from 1483 to 1461.--Example written in 1463.
«Forasmocheas we by divers meanes bene credebly enformed and undarstand for certyne, thatowr greate adversary Henry, naminge hym selfe kynge of England, by themaliceous counseyle and exitacion of Margaret his wife, namynge hir selfequeane of England, have conspired,» &c.--EDWARD IV: Letter of PrivySeal.
Examplesfor the reign of Henry VI,--from 1461 back to 1422.
«WhenNembroth [i.e. Nimrod] by Might, for his own Glorye, made and incorporate thefirst Realme, and subduyd it to hymself by Tyrannye, he would not have itgovernyd by any other Rule or Lawe, but by his own Will; by which and for th'accomplishment thereof he made it. And therefor, though he had thus made aRealme, holy Scripture denyd to cal hym a Kyng, Quia Rex dicitur a Regendo;Whych thyng he did not, but oppressyd the People by Myght.»--SIR JOHN FORTESCUE.
Examplefrom Lydgate, a poetical Monk, who died in 1440.
«Ourlife here short of wit the great dulnes The heuy soule troubled with trauayle,And of memorye the glasyng brotelnes, Drede and vncunning haue made a strongbatail With werines my spirite to assayle, And with their subtil creping inmost queint Hath made my spirit in makyng for to feint.» JOHN LYDGATE: Fallof Princes, Book III, Prol.
Examplefor the reign of Henry V,--from 1422 back to 1413.
«Iwolle that the Duc of Orliance be kept stille withyn the Castil of Pontefret,with owte goyng to Robertis place, or to any other disport, it is better he lakhis disport then we were disceyved. Of all the remanant dothe as yethenketh.»--Letter of HENRY V.
Examplefor the reign of Henry IV,--from 1413 back to 1400.
«Rightheigh and myghty Prynce, my goode and gracious Lorde,-- I recommaund me to youas lowly as I kan or may with all my pouer hert, desiryng to hier goode andgracious tydynges of your worshipful astate and welfare.»--LORD GREY:Letter to the Prince of Wales: Bucke's Classical Gram., p. 145.6.ENGLISH OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY
Reignof Richard II, 1400 back to 1377.--Example written in 1391. «Lytel Lowysmy sonne, I perceve well by certaine evidences thyne abylyte to lerne scyences,touching nombres and proporcions, and also well consydre I thy besye prayer inespecyal to lerne the tretyse of the astrolabye. Than for as moche as aphilosopher saithe, he wrapeth hym in his frende, that condiscendeth to theryghtfull prayers of his frende: therefore I have given the a sufficientastrolabye for oure orizont, compowned after the latitude of Oxenforde: vponthe whiche by meditacion of this lytell tretise, I purpose to teche the acertame nombre of conclusions, pertainynge to this sameinstrument.»--GEOFFREY CHAUCER: Of the Astrolabe.
Examplewritten about 1385--to be compared with that of 1555, on p. 87.
«Andthus this companie of muses iblamed casten wrothly the chere dounward to theyerth, and shewing by rednesse their shame, thei passeden sorowfully thethresholde. And I of whom the sight plounged in teres was darked, so that I nemight not know what that woman was, of so Imperial aucthoritie, I woxe allabashed and stonied, and cast my sight doune to the yerth, and began still forto abide what she would doen afterward.»--CHAUCER: Version from Boethius:Johnson's Hist. of E. L., p. 29.
PoeticalExample--probably written before 1380.
«OSocrates, thou stedfast champion; She ne might nevir be thy turmentour, Thounevir dreddist her oppression, Ne in her chere foundin thou no favour, Thouknewe wele the disceipt of her colour, And that her moste worship is for tolie, I knowe her eke a false dissimulour, For finally Fortune I doedefie.»--CHAUCER.
Reignof Edward III, 1377 to 1327.--Example written about 1360.
«Andeke full ofte a littell skare Vpon a banke, er men be ware, Let in the streme,whiche with gret peine, If any man it shall restreine. Where lawe failleth,errour groweth; He is not wise, who that ne troweth.»--SIR
JOHNGOWER.
Examplefrom Mandeville, the English traveller-written in 1356.
«Andthis sterre that is toward the Northe, that wee clepen the lode sterre, neapperethe not to hem. For whiche cause, men may wel perceyve, that the lond andthe see ben of rownde schapp and forme. For the partie of the firmamentschewethe in o contree, that schewethe not in another contree. And men may wellpreven be experience and sotyle compassement of wytt, that zif a man fond passagesbe schippes, that wolde go to serchen the world, men mighte go be schippe allaboute the world, and aboven and benethen. The whiche thing I prove thus, aftrethat I have seyn. * * * Be the whiche I seye zou certeynly, that men mayenvirowne alle the erthe of alle the world, as wel undre as aboven, and turnenazen to his contree, that hadde companye and schippynge and conduyt: and alleweyes he scholde fynde men, londes, and yles, als wel as in thiscontree.»--SIR JOHN MANDEVILLE; Johnson's Hist. of E. L., p. 26.
Examplefrom Rob. Langland's «Vision of Pierce Ploughman,» 1350.
«Inthe somer season, When hot was the Sun, I shope me into shroubs, As I a shepewere; In habit as an harmet, Vnholy of werkes, Went wyde in this world Wondersto heare.»
Descriptionof a Ship-referred to the reign of Edward II: 1327-1307.
«Suchne saw they never none, For it was so gay begone, Every nayle with gold ygrave,Of pure gold was his sklave, Her mast was of ivory, Of samyte her sayle wytly,Her robes all of whyte sylk, As whyte as ever was ony mylke. The noble ship waswithout With clothes of gold spread about And her loft and her wyndlace All ofgold depaynted was.» ANONYMOUS: Bucke's Gram., p. 143.
Froman Elegy on Edward I, who reigned till 1307 from 1272.
«Thahmi tonge were made of stel, Ant min herte yzote of bras, The goodness myht ynever telle, That with kyng Edward was: Kyng, as thou art cleped conquerour, Inuch battaille thou hadest prys; God bringe thi soule to the honour, That everwes ant ever ys. Now is Edward of Carnavan Kyng of Engelond al aplyght; Godlete him never be worse man Then his fader, ne lasse myht, To holden his poremen to ryht, Ant understonde good counsail, Al Engelond for to wysse and dyht;Of gode knyhtes darh him nout fail.» ANON.: Percy's Reliques, Vol. ii, p.10.7.ENGLISH OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY
Reignof Henry III, 1272 to 1216.--Example from an old ballad entitled Richard ofAlmaigne; which Percy says was «made by one of the adherents of Simon deMontfort, earl of Leicester, soon after the battle of Lewes, which was fought,May 14, 1264.»--Percy's Reliques, Vol. ii.
«Sittethalle stille, and herkneth to me; The kyng of Almaigne, bi mi leaute, Thrittithousent pound askede he For te make the pees in the countre, Ant so he dudemore. Richard, thah thou be ever trichard, Trichten shalt thou nevermore.»
Inthe following examples, I substitute Roman letters for the Saxon. At thisperiod, we find the characters mixed. The style here is that which Johnsoncalls «a kind of intermediate diction, neither Saxon nor English.»
Ofthese historical rhymes, by Robert of Gloucester, the Doctor gives us more thantwo hundred lines; but he dates them no further than to say, that the author«is placed by the criticks in the thirteenth century.»--Hist. of Eng.Lang., p. 24.
«Alfredthys noble man, as in the ger of grace he nom Eygte hondred and syxty andtuelue the kyndom. Arst he adde at Rome ybe, and, vor ys grete wysdom, The popeLeo hym blessede, tho he thuder com, And the kynges croune of hys lond, that inthis lond gut ys: And he led hym to be kyng, ar he kyng were y wys. An he was kyngof Engelond, of alle that ther come, That vorst thus ylad was of the pope ofRome, An suththe other after hym of the erchebyssopes echon.»
«Clerehe was god ynou, and gut, as me telleth me, He was more than ten ger old, ar hecouthe ys abece. Ac ys gode moder ofte smale gyftes hym tok, Vor to byleueother pie, and loky on ys boke. So that by por clergye ys rygt lawes he wonde,That neuere er nere y mad to gouerny ys lond.» ROBERT OF GLOUCESTER:Johnson's Hist. of E. L., p. 25.
Reignof John, 1216 back to 1199.--Subject of Christ'sCrucifixion.
«Isyke when y singe for sorewe that y se When y with wypinge bihold upon the tre,Ant se Jhesu the suete ys hert blod for-lete For the love of me; Ys woundeswaxen wete, thei wepen, still and mete, Marie reweth me.» ANON.: Bucke'sGram., p. 142.8.ENGLISH, OR ANGLO-SAXON, OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY
Reignof Richard I, 1199 back to 1189.--Owl and Nightingale.
«Ichwas in one sumere dale, In one snive digele pale, I herde ich hold grete tale, Anhule and one nightingale. That plait was stif I stare and strong, Sum wilesofte I lud among. An other again other sval I let that wole mod ut al. Ieither seide of otheres custe, That alere worste that hi wuste I hure and Ihure of others songe Hi hold plaidung futhe stronge.» ANON.: Bucke'sGram., p. 142.
Reignof Henry II, 1189 back to 1154.--Example dated 1180.
«Andof alle than folke The wuneden ther on folde, Wes thisses landes folke Leodenehendest itald; And alswa the wimmen Wunliche on heowen.» GODRIC: Bucke'sGram., p. 141.
Examplefrom the Saxon Chronicle, written about 1160.
«Micelhadde Henri king gadered gold & syluer, and na god ne dide me for his saulethar of. Tha the king Stephne to Engla-land com, tha macod he his gadering setOxene-ford, & thar he nam the biscop Roger of Seres-beri, and Alexanderbiscop of Lincoln, & te Canceler Roger hife neues, & dide aelle inprisun, til hi jafen up here castles. Tha the suikes undergaeton that he mildeman was & softe & god, & na justise ne dide; tha diden hi allewunder.» See Johnson's Hist. of the Eng. Language, p. 22.
Reignof Stephen, 1154 to 1135.--Example written about this time.
«Furin see bi west Spaygne. Is a lond ihone Cokaygne. There nis lond underheuenriche. Of wel of godnis hit iliche. Thoy paradis be miri and briyt.Cokaygne is of fairer siyt. What is ther in paradis. Bot grasse and flure andgreneris. Thoy ther be ioi and gret dute. Ther nis met bot anlic frute. Thernis halle bure no bench. Bot watir manis thurst to quench.» ANON.: Johnson'sHist. Eng. Lang., p. 23.
Reignof Henry I, 1135 to 1100.--Part of an Anglo-Saxon Hymn.
«Heuene& erthe & all that is, Biloken is on his honde. He deth al that hiswille is, On sea and ec on londe.
Heis orde albuten orde. And ende albuten ende. He one is eure on eche stede,Wende wer thu wende.
Heis buuen us and binethen, Biuoren and ec bihind. Se man that Godes wille deth,He mai hine aihwar uinde.
Echerune he iherth, And wot eche dede. He durh sighth eches ithanc, Wai hwat sel usto rede.
Seman neure nele don god, Ne neure god lif leden, Er deth & dom come to hisdure, He mai him sore adreden.
Hunger& thurst, hete & chele, Ecthe and all unhelthe, Durh deth com on thismidelard, And other uniselthe.
Nemai non herte hit ithenche, Ne no tunge telle, Hu muchele pinum and hu uele,Bieth inne helle.
LouieGod mid ure hierte, And mid all ure mihte, And ure emcristene swo us self, Swous lereth drihte.» ANON.: Johnson's Hist. Eng. Lang., p. 21.9.ANGLO-SAXON OF THE ELEVENTH CENTURY, COMPARED WITH ENGLISH
Saxon,--11thCentury.[50] LUCE, CAP. I.
"On Herodes dagum Iudea cynincges, was sum sacred on naman Zacharias, of Abiantune: and his wif was of Aarones dohtrum, and hyre nama waas Elizabeth.
Sothlicehig waron butu rihtwise beforan Gode, gangende on eallum his bebodum andrihtwisnessum, butan wrohte.
Andhig nafdon nan bearn, fortham the Elizabeth was unberende; and hy on hyra dagumbutu forth-eodun.
Sothlicewas geworden tha Zacharias hys sacerdhades breac on his gewrixles endebyrdnessebeforan Gode,
Eftergewunan thas sacerdhades hlotes, he eode that he his offrunge sette, tha he onGodes tempel eode.
Eallwerod thas folces was ute gebiddende on thare offrunge timan.
Thaatywde him Drihtnes engel standende on thas weofodes swithran healfe.
Thaweard Zacharias gedrefed that geseonde, and him ege onhreas.
Thacwath se engel him to, Ne ondrad thu the Zacharias; fortham thin ben isgehyred, and thin wif Elizabeth the sunu centh, and thu nemst hys namanJohannes."--Saxon Gospels.
«Inthe dayes of Eroude kyng of Judee ther was a prest Zacarye by name, of the sortof Abia: and his wyf was of the doughtris of Aaron, and hir name was Elizabeth.
Andbothe weren juste bifore God, goynge in alle the maundementis and justifyingisof the Lord, withouten playnt.
Andthei hadden no child, for Elizabeth was bareyn; and bothe weren of greet age inher dayes.
Andit befel that whanne Zacarye schould do the office of presthod in the ordir ofhis course to fore God,
Aftirthe custom of the presthood, he wente forth by lot, and entride into the templeto encensen.
Andal the multitude of the puple was without forth and preyede in the our ofencensying.
Andan aungel of the Lord apperide to him, and stood on the right half of the auterof encense. 12. And Zacarye seyinge was afrayed, and drede fel upon him.
Andthe aungel sayde to him, Zacarye, drede thou not; for thy preier is herd, andElizabeth thi wif schal bere to thee a sone, and his name schal be clepidJon.»
Wickliffe'sBible, 1380.
English.--17thCentury.
LUKE,CHAP. I.
"There was in the days of Herod the king of Judea, a certain priest namedZacharias, of the course of Abia: and his wife was of the daughters of Aaron,and her name was Elisabeth.
Andthey were both righteous before God, walking in all the commandments andordinances of the Lord, blameless.
Andthey had no child, because that Elisabeth was barren; and they both were nowwell stricken in years.
Andit came to pass, that while he executed the priest's office before God in theorder of his course,
Accordingto the custom of the priest's office, his lot was to burn incense when he wentinto the temple of the Lord.
Andthe whole multitude of the people were praying without at the time of incense.
Andthere appeared unto him an angel of the Lord, standing on the right side of thealtar of incense.
Andwhen Zacharias saw him, he was troubled, and fear fell upon him.
Butthe angel said unto him, Fear not, Zacharias; for thy prayer is heard, and thywife Elisabeth shall bear thee a son, and thou shall call his name John."
CommonBible, 1610.
SeeDr. Johnson's History of the English Language, in his Quarto Dictionary.10.ANGLO-SAXON IN THE TIME OF KING ALFRED
Alfredthe Great, who was the youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of the West Saxons,succeeded to the crown on the death of his brother Ethelred, in the year 871,being then twenty-two years old. He had scarcely time to attend the funeral ofhis brother, before he was called to the field to defend his country againstthe Danes. After a reign of more than twenty-eight years, rendered singularlyglorious by great achievements under difficult circumstances, he dieduniversally lamented, on the 28th of October, A. D. 900. By this prince theuniversity of Oxford was founded, and provided with able teachers from thecontinent. His own great proficiency in learning, and his earnest efforts forits promotion, form a striking contrast with the ignorance which prevailedbefore. «In the ninth century, throughout the whole kingdom of the WestSaxons, no man could be found who was scholar enough to instruct the young kingAlfred, then a child, even in the first elements of reading: so that he was inhis twelfth year before he could name the letters of the alphabet. When thatrenowned prince ascended the throne, he made it his study to draw his peopleout of the sloth and stupidity in which they lay; and became, as much by hisown example as by the encouragement he gave to learned men, the great restorerof arts in his dominions.»--Life of Bacon.
Conclusion
Thelanguage of eulogy must often be taken with some abatement: it does not usuallypresent things in their due proportions. How far the foregoing quotation istrue, I will not pretend to say; but what is called «the revival oflearning,» must not be supposed to have begun at so early a period as thatof Alfred. The following is a brief specimen of the language in which thatgreat man wrote; but, printed in Saxon characters, it would appear still lesslike English.
«Onthare tide the Gotan of Siththiu magthe with Romana rice gewin upahofon. andmith heora cyningum. Radgota and Eallerica waron hatne. Romane burig abracon.and eall Italia rice that is betwux tham muntum and Sicilia tham ealonde inanwald gerehton. and tha agter tham foresprecenan cyningum Theodric feng totham ilcan rice se Theodric was Amulinga. he wass Cristen. theah he on thamArrianiscan gedwolan durhwunode. He gehet Romanum his freondscype. swa that himostan heora ealdrichta wyrthe beon.»--KING ALFRED: Johnson's Hist. of E.L., 4to Dict., p. 17.
/>LITERATURE
Brill,E. and Mooney, R. J. (1997), ‘An overview of empirical natural languageprocessing', in AI Magazine, 18 (4): 13-24.
Chomsky,N. (1957), Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton.
Curme,G. O. (1955), English Grammar. New York: Barnes and Noble.
Dowty,D. R., Karttunen, L. and Zwicky, A. M. (eds) (1985), Natural Language Parsing. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Garside,R. (1986), 'The CLAWS word-tagging system', in R. Garside,
G.Leech and G. Sampson (eds) The Computational Analysis of English. Harlow:Longman.
Gazdar,G. and Mellish, C. (1989), Natural Language Processing in POP-11. Reading, UK:Addison-Wesley.
Georgiev,H. (1976), 'Automatic recognition of verbal and nominal word groups inBulgarian texts', in t.a. information, Revue International du traitementautomatique du langage, 2, 17-24.
Georgiev,H. (1991), 'English Algorithmic Grammar', in Applied Computer Translation, Vol.1, No. 3, 29-48.
Georgiev,H. (1993a), 'Syntparse, software program for parsing of English texts',demonstration at the Joint Inter-Agency Meeting on Computer-assistedTerminology and Translation, The United Nations, Geneva.
Georgiev,H. (1993b), 'Syntcheck, a computer software program for orthographical andgrammatical spell-checking of English texts', demonstration at the JointInter-Agency Meeting on Computer-assisted Terminology and Translation, TheUnited Nations, Geneva.
Georgiev,H. (1994—2001), Softhesaurus, English Electronic Lexicon, produced and marketedby LANGSOFT, Sprachlernmittel, Switzerland; platform: DOS/ Windows.
Georgiev,H. (1996-2001a), Syntcheck, a computer software program for orthographical andgrammatical spell-checking of German texts, produced and marketed by LANGSOFT,Sprachlernmittel, Switzerland; platform: DOS/Windows.
Georgiev,H. (1996-200lb), Syntparse, software program for parsing of German texts, producedand marketed by LANGSOFT, Sprachlernmittel, Switzerland; platform: DOS/Windows.
Georgiev,H. (1997—2001a), Syntcheck, a computer software program for orthographical andgrammatical spell-checking of French texts, produced and marketed by LANGSOFT,Sprachlernmittel, Switzerland; platform: DOS/Windows.
Georgiev,H. (1997-2001b), Syntparse, software program for parsing of French texts, producedand marketed by LANGSOFT, Sprachlernmittel, Switzerland; platform: DOS/Windows.