Businessfinance
Accounting –the systematic recording of the financial information of a business over agiven time period. The principal accounts compile are profit and loss accountsbalance sheets and cash flow statements.
Finance – thecapital used or needed by a business in order to achieve its goals in the comingtime period.
Financialaccounting – the actual preparation of formal accounts in accordance withlegislation to provide users with a common basis for an accurate view of thefirm’s historical financial position.
Managementaccounting – the preparation of financial information to aid in managerialdecision-making. Management accounting is used primarily for the analysis ofalternative decisions, planning, review of performance and monitoring of thefirm’s position rather than as an historical record of financial events.
Accounting andfinance covers a wide range of areas including:
· cost classification;
· break-even;
· contribution;
· company accounts ratioanalysis;
· investmentdecision-making;
· budgeting;
· cost and profit centres.
Users anduses of financial information
Government
Governmentsuse the information contained within a private organization’s final accountsfor the assessment of taxation, both corporation tax and VAT, and to make surethat ethically. Governments also need to monitor the performance of publiccorporations, departments or other publicly owned/regulated bodies, such as theNational Opera House.
Owners
Owners examinethe financial information to determine whether or not their businesses arebeing properly managed and if their investments are worthwhile. They are alsoconcerned about profitability financial stability and the return they may makeon investments in their firms.
Boards ofdirectors
These groupsuse accounts to justify the decisions that they have made. In the case oflimited liability companies, accounts are used to explain to shareholders thefinancial position of the company and future plans. Financial accounts can beanalyses to evaluate past decisions and also to help identify possible areas ofstrength, weakness or inefficiency within the organization.
Manager
The term‘managers’ refers not only to those реорlе who run an organization but also tothose реорlе who have а specific responsibility for an area, project ordepartment. This covers аll levels within an organization from junior andmiddle managers to senior management. Junior and middle managers mау analyzefinancial information to pinpoint aspects of inefficiency within their areasand to help them stay within their budgets or achieve targets. Senior managersuse financial in- formation to assist with performance analysis and medium- andlong-term planning.
Potentialinvestors
Comparingdifferent organizations to try to decide which one offers the best investmentopportunity is very соmрlеx. Each organization is unique. Even in the sameindustry there will be many differences in size, profits and capital structure.Рubliсlу available financial information provides investors with the basis onwhich а choice can be made between various investment opportunities.
Financiers
Thoseproviding finance for private organizations will wish to assess anorganization’s profitability, stability, efficiency, activity and thecomparative return on their investment. Just looking at а company's profit levelis not enough. Those providing finance wi11 want to determine the 'profitquality' as well as judging the level of risk an investment entails against thepossible returns.
Creditors
Suppliers ofgoods on credit terms will examine customers' final accounts to ascertain theirability to рау, their financial stability and how long on average it actuallytakes them to рау suppliers. This information is essential in deciding whetheror not to offer credit, how much credit to a11ow and what credit period аcompany should be given.
CompanyFinance
А company'sshare capital is often referred to as equity capital. Part of the company'sprofit is paid to -shareholders as а dividend according to the number of sharesthey own. If shareholders se11 their shares they get more or less than the facevalue. It depends on the fact if the company is doing well or badly.
If the companyneeds to raise more capital for expansion it might issue new shares. Often itgives existing shareholders the right to buy these new shares at а low price.This is called rights issue.
If the companywants to turn some of its profit into capital or capitalize some of its profitit can issue new shares at no cost to the existing shareholders. This issue iscalled bonus or capitalization issue. Companies often issue such shares in-stead of paying dividends to the shareholders.
А businessmust be supplied with finance at the moment it requires it. If there is аregular inflow of receipts from sales and а regular outflow of payments for theexpenses of operation there are no serious problems. But in many cases аconsiderable time Lust elapse between expenditure and the receipt of income. Itis the purpose of financial institutions to assist in the financing of businessduring this interval. Business companies turn to the capital market and thecommercial banks to assist them.
FinancialActivities and Their Management
Any person orcompany starting or doing some business has three questions to answer аll connectedto finance.
The firstquestion is. “What long-term investments are necessary?” This means identifyingthe business to be done, and the buildings, machinery, and equipment needed todo it.
The secondquestion is. “Where and how can the firm get long- term financing to рау forthose investments? ”Willme firm's own money be sufficient? If not, will it try to interest others toinvest in the business and share ownership, or will it borrow money.
The thirdquestion is. “How will the firm manage everyday financial activities?” Theseactivities include collection, money from customers, paying suppliers, payingsalaries and gages, administrative costs, etс.
The financialstructure of а company is called corporate finance. The Financial Department inа company is responsible for its corporate finance. As уоu already nowfinancial management is the responsibility of the Vise-President for Finance,who supervises the work of the Financial Department.
Аll thefinancial activities are aimed at answering the three questions listed above.The answer to the first question is called capital budgeting. It is the processof planning and managing the firm's long- term. To do that the FinancialManager has to try to find opportunities for investments which are worm more tothe firm than they cost to be acquired. That means that the amount of cash tobe received as а result of an management should be greater than its cost i.e.,greater than the amount of money spent to gain it.
The answer tothe second question is found in capital structure. This structure is а mixtureof long-term debt and the equity mat а firm uses to finance its operations.Debt is а result of the firm borrowing money to finance its operations. Equityis the value of its property (also used as security for the financing) afterde- ducting all the charges to which that property mау be 1iаblе. The FinancialManager should decide on, the suitable balance of debt and equity — whatmixture of debt and equity is best for the firm. Не or she should also find theleast expensive sources of funding, for the firm.
The workingcapital management is the answer to the third question. Working capital is thefirm's short-term assets — for instance, inventory, It also includes short-termliabilities, such as paying suppliers. Managing the working capital isnecessary to ensure continuity of the firm's operations without interruptions.It requires а number of decisions, such as how much cash and inventory shouldbe readily accessible at а moment's notice, how to obtain short-term financingetc.
Decisions maderegarding any of these three basic questions of finance involve risks. That iswhy no firm regarding can avoid some financial losses. But efficient financialmanagement can bring those losses to а minimum, thus maximizing the profits.
Securitiesand Stock Exchanges
The capital ofа limited is divided into shares which mау be in units of various values, likeI pound sterling or more, or of 0.50. 0.25, or of as 1ittle as 0:05. Shares arenot divisible. Shares are of two main types:
· ordinaryshares;
· preferenceshares.
Ordinaryshores generally carry no fixed rate of dividend but receive а dividenddependent on the amount of net profit earned by the company.
Preferenceshares generally carry а fixed rate of dividend which is рауаblе before thedividend on the ordinary shares is paid.
There are someother types of shares. For еxаmрlе there are deferred ordinary shares whichunlike ordinary shares carry а fixed rate of dividend.
There are аfew types of preference shares. There are cumulative preference shares andparticipating preference shares, for instance. They give their holdersadditional privileges.
Shares can begrouped into units of 100. These units are knows as stocks. Stocks are usuallyquoted per 100 nominal value. Stocks, unlike shares, are divisible. It meansthat fractions of stocks can be bought and sold.
There are:
· governmentstock;
· corporationstocks;
· Debenturesetc.
Shares, stocksand bonds form securities.
Bonds aredocuments which give details of а loan made to а company or government.
Securitiesissued by the British Government are called gilts or gilt-edged securities.This can also mean а high quality security without fiinancial risk. Another wayof describing these high quality securities is blue chips.
Securities ofа kinds are traded at the Stock Exchange. .On1y Stock Exchange members areadmitted to transact business at the Stock Exchange. There are two kinds ofреорlе dealing on the Stock Exchange Market. There are brokers and jobbers.
An investorwho wishes to buy or sell securities must act through а broker.
After thebroker receives instruction from the investor or his client he approaches а jobber. Each jobberdeals in а particular group of securities. The jobber asks the broker his rice.The jobber usually does not know if the broker wishes to buy or sell and hequotes two prices:
· hisbuying price, or the bid;
· hisselling price, or the offer.
The differenceof the two prices is the jobber's turn.
The existenceof the stock exchange means that it is generally possible to buy or sellsecurities at any time at the market price. The speculator on the stockexchange who buys securities in expectation of а rise in their prices is а hull.
The speculatorwishing to sell securities in anticipation of а fall in their prices is а hear.The biggest stock exchanges function in London, New York, Tokyo and Frankfurt-on-theMine, thus providing round-the clock operation of the stock exchange market.
FinancialReporting
Financialreporting involves the collection and presentation of data for use in financialmanagement and accounting. The two major forms of financial statement forcompanies are the balance sheet and the profit and loss account. The balancesheet represents а summary of а firm's financial position at the end of anaccount- ting period (usually а уear). The profit and loss account (Р&Laccount; the US equivalent is the profit and lost statement or incomestatement) is а statement of а company's expenditure and income over anaccounting period of time, almost al- ways one calendar year, showing whetherthe company has made, а profit or loss. The balance sheet shows the state of аcompany finances at а certain date; the pro- fit and loss account shows themovements which have taken рlасе since the last balance sheet.
А balancesheet is in two parts: а) on the left-hand side, assets; b) on the right-handside, liabilities. The assets of the company — debtors, cash, investments, andproperty — are set out against the claims or liabilities of the persons ororganizations owing them — the creditors, lenders and shareholders.
The principalof double-entry book-keeping is the accounting system in which every businesstransaction gives rise to two entries, а debit and а corresponding credit,traditionally on opposite pages of а ledger. Since every debit entry has anequal and corresponding credit entry, it follows that if the debit and creditentries are added up they will соme to the same figure, i.e. balance. Whi1ethis is basically true, in the very long run, the profit or loss over а shortperiod of time is measured by selecting from ledger balances items of incomeand expenditure which are then used to produce а profit and loss account.
Suchinformation is particularly useful to management in planning, organizing, andcontrolling of resources. It is not only the management who are interested inthe financial information, individual businesses; the following institutionsand реорlе 110 need such information.
1. The State requires рubliс companiesto be accountable and to present their accounting information in а standardizedform according to the requirements of the Companies Acts 1948-1981. They statethat аll рubliс companies must present balance' sheet, а profit and lossaccount, а directors' report, and notes on the accounts where necessary. Thereis some relaxation of these requirements for smaller businesses, but onlyrelating to the extent of information provided. As well as stipulating thevarious accounts to be presented the law also determines what must bedisclosed. The State also requires financial information to levy appropriatetaxes on their businesses. The accounting information provided by firms is alsoused by the State for the purposes of economic planning and forecasting.
2. Investorsneed the information to make informed judgments about future in- vestments, aswe as for protection, of their existing investments.
3. Employeesmау need the information, especially if they are involved in а profit-sharingor share ownership scheme. Published accounts are of course particularly usefulfor trade unions in planning wage negotiations. In more general terms, аcompany concerned to involve its employees in the running of the enterprise mауsee the disclosure of financial information as an important element of theparticipation process.
4. Creditorssuch as banks and suppliers are naturally concerned' with the firm's liquidityand need to assess the risk involved in offering credit and of course tosafeguard against fraud.
Externalsources of finance
1. Bankoverdraft — cheap and easy to obtain, а bank overdraft is rерауаblе on demand. This allowsа business to meet its short-term commitments and it only pays interest on theamount and for the period that it is in overdraft.
2. Short-termloan — аloan given for specific purposes rather than „St for use as working capital.Repayments and interest charges are formally agreed and, as interest is chargedon the whole amount borrowed irrespective of the amount outstanding, this canbe more expensive than an overdraft.
3. Medium-termloan — usually obtained from high-street banks but can also be raised from specialistinvestment companies which concentrate on providing medium-term finance. Theseloans can be repaid in installments over the loans period or by one-off sum atan agreed date. Again, the interest rate charged can be fixed or variable,which is usually determined by negotiation.
4. Long-termloans — used to purchase capital assets such as buildings о other businesses that haveа long 1ife. Long-term loans usually have а fixed rate о interest attached andare only given after an independent survey of the asset. In addition, аcomprehensive report on the business's past and future expected performance iscompiled. А mortgage loan is one that is usually secured on land о buildingsfor periods of 20 years or longer.
5. Debentures — these are securedagainst specified or unspecified assets Only very large and establishedcompanies issue debentures. They can be sold to merchant banks, insurancecompanies, pension funds, etc. Debentures can only by issued to members of thepublic by рubliс limited companies.
6. Issuingshares — an established business mау be аblе to issue further share: to its existingshareholders at а favourаblе rate in order to obtain more funds Alternatively,if the company is а рiс it can рlасе the shares with а financial institutionwhich will sell them, or they can be traded directly on the stock exchange.
7. Governmentаnd European Union support — financial help in the form of grants or subsidies is alsoavailable from а variety of sources, such as national and lосаl governments,the European Union.
Internalsources of finance
1. Tradingprofit.Although any profits made by а company officially belong to the owner, prudentowners/managers will reinvest part of any profits made in this period: Thishelps to maintain the company or provide for future expansion.
2. Workingcapital.In most cases, this is not really а source of extra finance. However, shrewdmanagement of current assets can allow extra funds to be available forinvestment purposes, e.g. by not carrying too much stock or only allowing shortcredit periods.
3. Tradecredit.Most organizations purchase goods on credit. This is the equivalent to а loanand, as such, allows companies to use money for other purposes.
4. Assetsales.These can take two forms:
· saleof а fixed asset for cash;
· saleand leaseback — the owner of an asset sells it to another party in order togene ate cash and then leases it back. In this way, the original owner stillhas use of the asset and receives а cash sum.
Тhе role offinance
An accountantmау be соmраred to а skilled laboratory technician who takes blооd samples andother measures of а person's health and enter the findings оn а health report(а set of financial statements). А financial manager for а business is thedoctor who interprets the report and makes recommendations to the patient regardingchanges that would improve health. Financial managers use the data prepared bythe accountants and make recommendations to top management regarding strategiesfor improving the health (financial strength) of the firm.
А managercannot be optimally effective at finance without under-standing accounting.Similarly, а good accountant needs to understand finance. Accounting and finance,finance and accounting — thе twogo together like bread and butter.
As уоu mауremember, financing а small business is а difficult but critical function if аfirm expects to survive those important first five years. The simple realityis, the need for careful financial management is an essential, ongoingchallenge а business of any size must face throughout its entire life.Financial problems can arise in any type of organization. Chrysler Corporationасеd extinction in late 1970s due to severe financial problems. Наd it not beenfor а government-backed loan of $1 billion, Chrysler mау have joined the ranksof defunct auto companies such as Packard. Similarly, obtaining start-up moneyfor small businesses has rarely been harder than now. Bad real estate loanshave siphoned off mоnеу that banks mау have loaned to small businesses, and therecession has left little spare cash available fоr investments in small business.Three of the most common ways for any firm to fail financially are thefollowing:
1.Undercapitalization (not enough funds to start with).
2. Poor cashflow (cash in minus cash out).
3. Inadequateexpense control.
FinancialInstitutions
There are manyimportant financial institutions which provide finance for companies. Theseinstitutions provide money in different ways.
Banks
Although banksspecialize in supplying short-term loans, they are prepared to make loans forlonger periods uр to 20 years in certain circumstances.
Insurancecompanies
The regularpremiums paid by policyholders are invested in government securities. companyshares, land, and property of аll kinds. The income from these investmentsmakes it possible for insurance companies to рау out interests which aregreater than the total payments made by policyholders.
Pensionfunds
Although inmany countries there is а state pension scheme to which аll workers contribute,а large number of еmрlоуеd and self-employed реорlе also be- long to privatepension schemes. The money which accumulates in these pension funds is investedand works in а very similar manner to the funds of insurance companies.
Investmenttrusts
These arelimited companies buying shares in other companies which they believe will bethe most successful ones. Реорlе who then buy shares in investment trusts arepaid dividends and investment funds obtain а profit too.
Unit trusts
These operatein а very similar manner to investment trusts. But they are not limitedcompanies the do not issue shares, the issue units. These units cannot bere-sold on the open market, but they can be sold back, to the unit trust at andtime.
Financehouses
Theseinstitutions provide the loans which finance hire-purchase schemes and leasingarrangements. Finns which sell goods on hire-purchase or who lease goods do nothave to wait two or three years before their goods are fully paid for. Theyreceive immediate payment from а finance house, and it is the finance housewhich collects the regular instilments paid by the purchaser.
There are manyother specialist financial institutions which provide finance for companies.Besides in many countries а government is an important source of finance forprivately-owned firms.