Transport &
environmental policy
Our modern world is
heading towards creation of more and more regional blocks in order to achieve
greater stability and prosperity in all areas. The European Union, one of the
strongest regional blocks, has its economic policies as its main concern how to
achieve stronger cooperation, integration and prosperity within the
organization. The main discussion of this paper will be the EU Transport and
Environmental policy. The main purpose of this essay is to introduce main
concepts and workings of both policies separately and then evaluate how these
are applied in reality. However the main concepts based on the previously
mentioned ideas will be to stress out the importance or need of both policies
and what have been their major successes and failures so far. At the end the
main task will be to analyze and make a conclusion, for both policies together,
what should be done better and what would be the possible directions of those
in the future.
Transport Policy
For the EU’s goal
to have an efficient and dynamic economy and cohesive society the crucial issue
is to move goods and people as quickly, cheaply and efficiently as possible.
This concept is reflected by proper transport policy. The basis of the
Transport policy within EU is reflected in articles 74 to 84 of the Treaty of
Rome (1957). These articles set the rules that call for the following points:
common set of rules that would govern the transport policy within EU; for
promotion of public transport services there have to be state aids to support
it; to have as low costs as possible; introduce several means of transport
(road, water, sea and air transport). Why it is actually important to have an
effective transport policy within the EU? The main reason for this is, that
transport as a growing industry has a significant importance in the economy of
the EU. In other words if EU wants to have a integrated and prosperous economy
it has to built up an effective transport system. Therefore the main concern of
transport with regards to the economy involves several important aspects: support
the process of Single Market; promote sustainable development; creating
appropriate infrastructure to reduce disparity among regions; provide and
improve safety; establish relations with third countries etc. At the end it is
also important to mention that EU system of transport does not necessarily stop
at EU borders, it might continue even further if a non member country has an
agreement with the EU concerning the transport issues.
Over time the
demand of transport means and services has changed rapidly within EU. There
were several factors contributing to such changes: shifting of manufacturing
away from many of originally urban sites; the great increase in sector of
services; greater mobility among professional people; increase in incomes
therefore more use of transport is created etc. What this change actually means
in reality? Firstly, the new transporting network (beginning of 20th century)
was created and is used by all states apart from Spain. Secondly, in general
since last two decades there has been major increase in transport, which
created a new mobility within the EU. The transport of passengers increased
over 85% (fastest change in air transport). However despite many disadvantages
(pollution, traffic jams etc.) road transport has achieved the greater increase
and currently dominates in the area of transport means.
By the completion
of Single Market the transport policy was heading towards the advancement. The
main concern, again, was to create a set of rules where within the Single
Market the transport would be efficiently provided and also the competition
would be present as well. The main worries concerning the Single Market issue
were not to allow the creation of monopolies, not distorting competition,
managing of structural changes and ensuring that all means of transport will
cover their costs (even causing the environmental damage). These issues were
more or less solved but mainly two issues have been the center of debate
concerning the impact of Single Market. The first one is the road haulage,
mainly because it is the most common of means how to transfer goods. The second
is the civil aviation (which grows constantly) and is the main means of
passengers’ long-distance travelling.
The road haulage is
one of the major concerns of the EU transport policy because it is the major
means of transporting goods within the region. Firstly, this area has been the
main concern for the transport policy mainly because it is the most important
mode of transport and both “international and domestic freight transport have
been subjected to a variety of controls and restrictions in terms of prices and
entry into market” (Barnes, Barnes 84). How much restricted control is applied
varies from one country to another. For example while Germany applied strict
regulatory controls, UK used more liberal approach towards such issue. However
the main principle of international haulage is characterized by the use of
so-called quota system, meaning that hauliers have to obtain the permit to be
able to undertake international journeys. One form of permit is so called
Bilateral permit, which is mainly about two particular member states who make a
bilateral agreements about the amount of haulage licences to be granted to
non-domestic carries. Another form is Multilateral permit, which allowed
unlimited journeys within the EU region. This one became especially important
over the last two decades and was given even wider scope by the EU. Secondly,
because of fairness among domestic and non-domestic hauliers there was the introduction
of payment for usage of roads (1250 ECU per year, Euro-regional tax disc).
Thirdly, because there are other issues in which a member states differ (weight
that trucks might carry) there was the introduction of weight allowed to be
carried by trucks that could vary as much as 30 % depending on particular
member state. Finally, the new agreements created more competitive environment
within the EU. Trucks could obtain loads for tour journeys so that they are
more often fully loaded. However, the road haulage now days takes highest
percentage of modes of transport even though it causes the highest pollution
and therefore most harm to the environment. Main concern that it should be
joined if not substituted by other modes of transport (such as rail, inland
waterways, air, sea etc.) that are more ecological. The best way to achieve
this would be through incentives, targeted advertisement emphasizing for the
need of usage of other means of transport.
The civil aviation
form of transport is the other crucial area because it is the constantly
growing and most common means of transport of passengers for the long-distance
travelling. It is important to mention that prior to 1990s the air transport
was highly regulated and in most cases state-owned. However due to increasing
importance of global competition the aviation industry switched from being a
infant industry to being a provider of mass service, mainly privately owned.
The major breakthrough came in 1986 with the so-called “Nouvelles Frontieres
judgement of ECJ, which confirmed that competition rules did apply to the air
transport sector as well. Competition rules applied under Article 85 of Treaty
of Rome, which takes into consideration the anti-competitive agreements; and
Article 86, which concerns the abuse of dominant market positions (Barnes,
Barnes 89). The main features of liberalization of aviation services came in
years 1987, 1990 and introduces the following concepts: free pricing for
scheduled airfares; rules against predatory pricing were strengthened; entry
into industry was easier; allowed duly licensed air carries to operate
virtually all routes between airports in the EU. Most importantly, the
liberalization of air transport is the part of completion of Single Market in
service sector and is believed to bring the prosperity mainly because the
possible threat of oligopoly is reduced, price of the air travel will fall,
there will be available grater availability of flights (more efficient
transport area) and finally there will be provided new spirit for competition
between existing airlines.
One of the
important concerns with regards to the air travel services is the amount of
state aid given to the particular airlines. During the period of 1991 to 1994
there was a great amount of state aid given to the European airlines in order
to improve the situation within the area of air transport. However the state
aid was inefficiently used by many airlines. The main example was the French
“Air France” that had a loss of 440 million Euro in a first half of 1993, and
recognized a need of financial help from the state. However after it had
received the help from state the actual loss at the end of 1993 turned out to
be 1 billion Euro. Other airlines argued that giving a state aid to companies
that show significant level of loss deprives them for any possibility of
gaining the help from state if they need it and prevents them from equal
treatment and opportunities. Therefore after a successful discussion the EU
Commission has changed the criteria for giving the aid to airlines and the
outcome has brought following points: the state aid is given on “one last time”
basis; the remaining airlines that are not privatized should do so; careful
monitoring of restructuring process; government should not participate in
commercial decisions of airlines and so on and so forth. What is important to
mention concerning this issue is mainly that if transport policy has to work
properly in this sector there has to be emphasis on coordination of
infrastructure of industry. EU could possibly help the process by providing
enough funding but at the same time there has to be a will of national
governments to encourage competitive practices.
For the European
economy to operate as a Single Market there has to be presence of common
transport policy. Simply speaking, many member states consider their national
transport issues but undermine the importance of the overall European system of
transport network that would connect all areas within the region, bring closer
cooperation and greater economic efficiency and success. These is to be
achieved through the establishment of so-called Trans-European networks (TENs).
Its establishment will require member states to combine with the EU in order to
achieve greater coherence. This ought to bring the economic growth and deeper
integration within the EU. The main tasks include “better and safer travel at
low costs; effective planning in Europe in order to avoid a concentration of
population; bridge building towards Eastern Europe in order to step up
investment and promote trade” (Barnes, Barnes 98). All these have to be
achieved mainly through removing of financial and regulatory obstacles and
involving private investors in such issues. What is most believed that
effective working of such a network will bring economic and social cohesion.
The important thing to be emphasized here is that this idea needs the proper
funding coming from all different sources (involving arrangements between
public and private sector). In order to achieve the all-European strategy the
new routes have to be taken and focus especially on those areas were the
coordination between member states and EU authorities is performed badly
therefore has to be improved.
For better
understanding of the whole issue let’s summarize major successes and failures
of the EU transport policy. First major success was actually the stressing out
the importance of transport policy within the EU as a necessary part for the
effective economic integration and therefore making it a part of the EU law.
Another significant success could be connected with the increase, during last
two decades, of usage of many means of transport mainly road, air, rail, water
etc. It could be followed by liberalization of road haulage and civil aviation.
The last, but probably most important, success would be the effort to establish
Trans-European networks (TENs) which is supposed to provide EU with better
economic and social cohesion. However there are several failures that have to
be mentioned as well. One of them would be that even though there has been an
effort to liberalize the road haulage, this means of transport is most commonly
used despite the fact that causes the biggest threat to our environment. There
has been complete failure by EU to substitute it with other more ecological
means such as air or rail transport. Another significant failure by EU concerns
the state aids and ineffective spending on policy issues (e.g. Air France).
This could be followed by the fact that EU did not manage to convince or create
greater cooperation between member states and EU authorities therefore leaving
the states to take care more of their national interests rather than common
European interest. Generally speaking, the EU has created a lot of good
proposals and concepts concerning effective trade policy on the paper but it
has done much less in converting it into real practices (more important). What
is necessary for the future is that EU should find the way how to spend the
money devoted tot the trade policy more efficiently and most importantly to
find means for applying all these practices that it has on paper in reality so
to achieve a real progress in all areas.
Environmental
policy
The concept of
environment is crucial because it affects all citizens and therefore its presence
in the EU legislation is of great importance. Unlike many other policies, the
beginning of environmental policy does not go backwards up to the Treaty of
Rome in 1957. Its main concern (importance) was introduced in 1972, were a
great amount of amendments, regulations, decisions, directives have been
adopted by member states. Afterwards it became the part of the Treaty on
European Union (TEU), more precisely in article 2, where its importance is
firstly recognized by a EU treaty. Mainly, legislation has been introduced to
cover such issues as “quality of water, waste management, air quality, control
of pollution from transport, emission of chemicals, protection of wildlife and
countryside, as well as measures to make a legislation work. As a result the
EU’s environmental policy has an impact on all aspects of life” (Barnes,
Barnes 294). It was easy for the EU to
put all these aspects on the paper but more difficult to make 15 member states
(currently 25) to adopt and practice these in reality. The main aim how to
achieve this was through the introduction of different levels of sustainable
development principles. The main aim of this policy in the future will be to
redistribute costs and responsibilities among major polluters and encourage
cooperation between different groups, industries etc.
As was already
mentioned the importance of environment and its protection within the EU was
introduced for the first time in 1972. The most important thing considering the
legal basis of environmental issue was that in 1986 the SEA included a chapter
on environmental issue which gave the policy much firmer legal background. The
SEA clearly stated main points of environmental issue as follows: preserving,
protecting and improving the quality of human life; contribution towards human
health and rational use of natural resources. These were to be achieved by the
three main principles which include: prevention is better than cure approach;
rectification of damage at its source; polluter pays to clean up the damage.
What is also important concerning the legal basis is that SEA included
requirement that environment should become the common part of EU policies and
also introduced the principle of subsidiarity. Another important concept that
deserves mention is the sustainable development. The main idea was that in 1987
there was a need to develop environmental policy that would contribute to
greater economic growth but with condition to be coupled with effective
protection of the environment. The idea of sustainable development was
introduced in 1987 “Bruntland Report, Our common future” (Barnes, Barnes 295).
There was presented the idea that it is possible to achieve economic growth
with the effective protection of environment. This created the principle of
sustainable development which was supported in 1992 in Rio summit and is common
phenomenon now days.
One good aspect to
realize is how the economic prosperity and growth are connected to the
environment issue. Here we can emphasize several main concepts. Firstly, it is
argued economic benefits heading towards removal of trade barriers have a
negative impact when it comes to an environment. The idea is that only at zero
economic growth there is no negative impact on the environment. Secondly, there
has to be ability of EU to intervene and harmonize definitions an standards in
areas where differences might cause distortion to barriers to trade. If the
state keeps the low standards compared to others where the standard is higher
than they practice unfair advantage over these states. Simply speaking, if the
low standards are cause of ignorance towards an environmental damage the
product prices in such a country could be lower therefore giving companies
unfair advantage on the Single Market. This is where the EU ought to intervene.
Thirdly, there has to be some measure at EU level concerning environment in
order to achieve effective implementation of legislation. Finally, there has to
be potential for creation of eco-industries as well as development of new
technologies that will promote more competition within the EU environmental
industries and relationships.
The main concern is
to see what is the great importance of the environmental policy and how it’s
effective application can be achieved in reality. As was already said the EU environmental
policy was started in 1972 during the Summit conference of Heads of the States
in Paris. At the same time was launched the First Environmental Action Program
to meet those main criteria. The criteria that emphasize why we need the
environmental policy are the following: “prevent, reduce and eliminate
pollution; maintain satisfactory ecological balance and protect the biosphere;
avoid damage to ecological balance; to ensure that more account is taken of
environmental aspects in town planning and land use; to work for those ends
with non-member states of the EU” (Barnes, Barnes 301). The Second
Environmental Action Program created more proactive approach in the
environment, meaning that it looked for specific resources for the prevention
of the pollution. The Third Environment Action Program emphasized mainly on the
prevention rather than cure principle. Fourth Environmental Action Program as
adopted at the same time as was the Single Market program, therefore
representing clear linkage of economic and environmental issues. The economy
should not undermine the protection of environment. Fifth Environmental Action
Program was created mainly for better approach towards environmental
management. The emphasis was put mainly on research and monitoring of environmental
problems. This encouraged many states to use several tools (taxes, market-based
instruments) to protect the environment. What is also important, the program
established EU Financial Instrument for the Environment (LIFE). Most important
is the last or the Six Environmental Action Program (until 2010). The main
principles are: “tackling climate change and global warming; protect natural
habitat and wildlife; addressing environment and health issues; preserving
natural resources and managing wastes” (Environment). All policy is based on
“polluter pays” principle (payment can be required through investment or
taxation on goods etc.).
As with all other
policies the environment policy has to be backed up by the financial support if
it want to work properly and achieve the necessary progress. There are several
places where the environmental policy can be supported from. Firstly, the
Structural fund provided some 1 billion ECU during the period of 1988 to 1993.
However taking into an account that environment is a crucial aspect of EU
policies this amount of money is negligible for such a period of time.
Secondly, Cohesion fund within the EU provided some very small amount of money
in 1994, which again made no significant progress in such a crucial issue.
Finally, the most important source of funding is currently The Financial
Instrument for the Environment (LIFE). However this was not created as to be
separate agency financing the EU environmental issues but only as a body that
ensures that financial support coming from all different resources is used in a
most efficient way so to get the highest possible impact (sustainable
development). As we can see here lies one of the main problems of environmental
policy which is the lack of financial support for its effective implementation.
For the future concern would be to increase of funding from whatever sources if
the EU environmental policy is about to be efficient.
One of the most
crucial issues concerning environmental policy is to see to what extent it is actually effective. One of the first concerns
is the actually there is a lack of commitment among the Member states. More
precisely, the most of the legislation was adopted in the form of directives.
Directives is the principle were the end result is crucial but the way it is
going to be achieved depends on the particular member state. As a consequence
the gab has been created between the drafters of the legislation and member
states who responsible for putting legislation into practice. Main point is that
if particular member state lacks the commitment to particular issue then the
effective outcome is uncertain. These cases occurred in countries such as
Greece, Ireland, Italy and England. Other main concern in this area is that
there has to be legal compliance with legislation. The main idea is that
Commission encourages individuals to report infringements of EU directives,
therefore Commission will afterwards restore the order. Commission has already
taken action against states such as Belgium or Italy for not managing to
introduce legislation to put EU’s laws into practice. In addition EU has
introduced new penalty for states that fail to do so: “If the state concerned
fails to take necessary measures…within the time limit laid down by the
Commission, the latter may bring the case before the Court of Justice. In so
doing it should specify the amount of lump sum or penalty payment…If the court
of Justice finds that the Member State concerned has not complied with its
judgment it may impose a lump sum or penalty payment on it” (Barnes, Barnes
307). Certainly those two factors are of great importance for effectiveness of
policy as such but there are other factors, such as sufficient financial
support and finding most appropriate means for solution of the problem for each
specific area, that are even more important.
The need of agency
that would support the enforcement of EU legislation led to creation of the
European Environment Agency, based in Copenhagen. The main task of the agency
is to provide the state of environment and warn before the problem is about to
arise. The agency mainly provides the
information on which decision is made by member states; ensures the promotion
of best practices for the environmental protection and technologies; helps the
Commission in sorting the research results. However the main concern of the
European Environment Agency is to support initiators and provide effective
enforcement of legislation mainly by providing and spreading information.
There are several
market-based instruments proposed by EU that are supposed to force both
consumers and producers to behavior that is headed in direction, which is less
harmful to the environment. The idea of EU is that by usage of economic and
fiscal instruments the true price will be always paid therefore companies won’t
be able to continue with wasteful practices. One of the first parts of the
legislation to deal with such issue was “EU’s Eco-management and Audit Scheme
Regulation (EMAR). It is based on the introduction of cycle of environmental
auditing by a company with the objective of identifying and introducing
measures to improve environmental performance over time” (Barnes, Barnes 312).
Another type of instrument is so-called Eco-labeling, which makes consumers
aware of the issue of environment and stressing out its importance. However in
both cases the important thing is that information is made public and is
commonly shared by the citizens of Europe. Another form how to intervene in
this area is the form of taxation. The main idea is to impose taxes on the
activities that cause pollution The last
of the concepts is the application of principle of subsidiarity, meaning
applying same conditions of competition and same environmental practices to all
member countries.
The very important concept
of the environment within the EU is that pollution prevention and control has
to be more integrated. The main idea of this approach was to supplement
existing directives by new ones that would force member states to adapt their
minimum discharge standards to best available techniques. This means that
technology will be commonly developed but its adaptation will be left to member
states to decide how to use it in most efficient way. Every member state will
be required to impose limit values for all substances listed in “Annexes to
Directives”. The main goal or purpose of this approach is to protect
environment as a whole rather than let it transfer from one area to another.
Once again the
useful thing would be to summarize all the successes and failures that EU has
achieved within the concern of environmental policy. Among the biggest
successes we could count the fact that despite failure to recognize the
importance of environment in the Treaty of Rome it has been achieved later on
in 1972 and made a part of TEU. The success is obviously the ability to create
the legal principles and main ideas of the policy. Another form of success
could be seen in the creation of EEA and establishment of Six Environmental
Action Programs that deal with issue of environment into more details. Probably
the biggest success was the creation of Market-based instruments to make public
aware of an issue and also to make it participate in such an important concept.
However there are probably more failures than successes in this case. One of
the most obvious failures is that EU does not provide policy with sufficient
financial backing therefore preventing it from being effective in a first
place. The other failure, closely linked to the previous one, is that even the
financial support given to the policy issues is not spent efficiently (not
spent on most important concepts). Another failure could be the fact that EU
deals with the environmental policy in a very broad sense. It means that it
should go more into details and deal with specific areas of the whole
environment. Finally, one of the biggest failures similarly to the first policy
discussed, is that EU has done great deal of putting all necessary concepts on
the paper but still does not do very much in reality. Therefore if the
environment, as a crucial issue for everyone of us, has to be taken towards a
progress for the future concern of EU would be to find appropriate means for
every particular aspect of the whole policy and instead of lovely talks what
should be done it has to start practicing these in real world situations.
After analyzing the
need, main concepts, workings, successes/failures of transport and
environmental policy, there is a necessary task to realize what has to be done
by EU in the future for making greater integration and greater progress in all
areas of the European Union. We have seen that both policies, as well as many
other policies within EU, are of great importance and are more or less closely
linked to each other. Both of the policies have the good structural background
with all its main working principles and basic ideas but unfortunately these
are only well performed in the legislation or treaties. The EU, for its future
progress, has to overcome several concepts that it has been missing so far.
Firstly, the EU has to redistribute its funding to every policy according to
the actual need of particular policy, meaning that it has to provide enough
funding for every policy in order to make it work well. Secondly, the funding
available has to be spent in most efficient way, meaning that areas of
particular policy that really need the financial support have the priority over
the others that are less in need of financing. Thirdly, EU when approaching its
policies, in most cases tends to get the concern of a policy in general terms.
This should be substituted by taking deeper approach, more precisely into
specific areas of a problem of policy and then building up a whole aspect of
policy. Finally, the most important idea is for EU to establish specific concepts
for particular policies and rather then on the proposal based on documents what
should be done it must implement these main ideas and concepts more in real
life situation. By doing so this is the only way how to achieve progress within
the EU policies. The progress within the economic policies is a must to
survival of the European Union in future.
Список литературы
Ian Barnes, Pamela
M. Barnes. The Enlarged European Union. Pearson education limited, Essex,
England. Published: Addison Wesley Longman Publishing, New York, USA: 1995.
Transport.
Environment. May 14, 2004. http://www.europa.eu.int
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