Teaching speaking through discussion

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND SCIENCE OF UKRAINE
IVAN FRANKO NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF LVIV
ENGLISH DEPARTMENT
Teaching speaking throughdiscussion
COURSE PAPER
PRESENTED BY
Olga Baran
a fourth year student
of the English department
SUPERVISED BY
Larysa ViktorivnaLemeshchuk
an assistant professor
of the English department
LVIV 2009

Contents
Introduction
1. Chapter 1. Fundamentalconsiderations in teaching writing essays
1.1 The importance ofwriting essays
1.2 Basic principles of teachingwriting essays: writing techniques and stages
1.3.organization of the essays. Essay structure
2. Chapter 2
2.1 Types of essays. Essay samples
2.2 Punctuation. Word choice
2.3 Linking words and phrases
2.4 Plagiarism
Conclusion
References
Introduction
Written communication has become extremely importantfor interaction in the modern world with the instant technological development.Recently writing assessments and essays have become a vital part of a formal education.Secondary students are taught to structure their compositions in order to improvetheir writing skills. Both in secondary and tertiary education, essays are usedto judge the mastery and comprehension of material. Students are asked to explain,comment on or assess a topic of study in the form of an essay.
What is an essay? Essay is a short piece ofwriting on a particular subject which presents the author’s point of view. It isan organized set of ideas and reflections. This presentation of views must be donein a logical and factual manner with the use of the first person often discouraged.The leading essayist Aldous Huxley defines essay in the following way — “Like thenovel, the essay is a literary device for saying almost everything about almostanything, usually on a certain topic. By tradition, almost by definition, the essayis a short piece, and it is therefore impossible to give all things full play withinthe limits of a single essay. But a collection of essays can cover almost as muchground, and cover it almost as thoroughly, as can a long novel”. The word«essay» originated from French word «essai» which means«effort, sketch». It reflects the essence of this notion. It is a personalattempt to give a challenging sketch on certain issues. Every attempt is differentand presents versatile ideas, but people must not be afraid of writing even knowingthat it is too complicated to express themselves in a proper way.
Essay should be structured in various sectionsthat make it easy for the readers to read and follow the author’s thoughts clearly.To show your grasp of the ideas studied learners have to express them in their ownwords. Writing essays is not the easy task. Nevertheless, it is a good way to stimulate learning and critical thinkingthat makes writing a valuable part of any language course. It enables learners to display the skills and abilities which they possessand remaining an important method of assessment, helps to discriminate between students,to test their intellectual capabilities. Raimes points out“Writing helps students to learn. Firstly, it reinforces the grammatical structures,idioms, and vocabulary that teachers have been teaching their students. Secondly,when students write, they also have a chance to be adventurous with the language,to go beyond what they have just learned. Thirdly, when students write, they necessarilybecome very involved with the new language [14, p.58]
Professor Roy Wilkinson has identified a pyramidof skills which teachers try to test with the help of essay assignment.
Tarvers explains that “Writing is a powerful instrument of thought. In the act of composing, writers learn about themselves and their world and communicate their insights to others. Writing confers the power to grow personally and to effect change in the world" [18, p.45] Moreover, the skill of writing essays is an essential tool in achieving the desirable grade in the courses studied. The basic essay-writing skills are not that difficult to acquire. The reason why so many students fail to do this is that not enough attention has been paid to teaching them. It is inevitable that schools, colleges and universities spend most of their time teaching the core subject-matter of a course, but hardly any time in advising students how to put their ideas down on paper in the form of an essay. Hedge points out that writing has been a neglected area of English language teaching for some years [11, p.101]. However, when people write down an account of ideas for others to read, they have to explain themselves particularly carefully. The leaps made while talking are not allowed. This makes writing probably the most challenging aspect of studying. White and Amdt promote that “Writing is a form of problem-solving which involves such processes as generating ideas, discovering a voice with which to write, planning, goal-setting, monitoring and evaluating what is going to be written as well as what has been written and searching for language with which to express exact meanings” [20, p.92].
The difficulties in writing essays as well as the process of teaching writing essays show the object of this course paper. The subject lies in the set of skills and hints for teaching learners to write better compositions. This coursework comprises the following tasks:
· to specify the structureof the essay and stages in writing it;
· to clarify the skills andhabits necessary for the learners to write properly, clearly and persuasively, andto present the viewpoint forcefully in writing;
· to show the importance ofpracticing writing topic and concluding sentences, organizing the paragraphs coherently,using appropriate vocabulary, transitional devices and grammar;
· to apply key writing structuresto learners’ writing;
· to develop strategies for writing, revising, andediting texts that are based on audience and purpose;
· to make students aware ofthe impact of their choice of words, sentences and organizational techniques onthe effectiveness of writing.
Learning solid essay writing skills while inschool is the foundation for even the most basic education. Thus, many studentsdo not have the slightest idea on how to begin a creative writing and how to expresstheir thoughts. It is important for learners not to suppress their ideas, they shouldthink widely, in various directions. The practical value lies in helping people to order their essays, to displaytheir knowledge in the well-structured way due to the standards of essay writing,to provoke the learners to write and to believe in their own abilities, the originalityand validity of their thoughts. In addition to this, essay writing is a part ofa sequence designed to develop specific discourse skills.1. Chapter 1. Fundamental considerationsin teaching writing essays1.1 The importance of writing essays
Language learning requires mastering the fourbasic skills a language consists of. Thus there is not only the awareness of grammatical,lexical or syntactic rules needed but the writing process demands also mental powerof the writer. Writing is an effective tool to use for different purposes from sharingideas, corresponding to persuading others. Through writing people articulate theirideas in another way than in speaking, their written product can be much more expressiveand powerful. Written works are permanent; they may have an impact much later intime. Tarvers claims that “The purposes for writing vary widely, from discoveringthe writer’s own feelings, to persuading others to a course of action, recreatingexperience imaginatively, reporting the results of observation, and more” [18, p.48].Having such potential, learners should be taught all the necessary rules and conventionsof writing as a skill to express themselves in the most appropriate way. Thereforewriting deserves an equal part in the classroom of learning language skills. Nowadaysmore attention is paid to speaking and listening, developing writing skills seemto be a deprived area. White mentions that “For some time, under the influence ofthe audio-lingual approach to language teaching, it has been conventional wisdomto regard speech as being of primary importance, with writing being placed a poorsecond. Writing was regarded as being a somewhat inferior form of the language”[20, p.57]. It is no longer seen as simply a means to retellor recount information, but as a unique way to internalize and expand upon specificknowledge, to retain the information, integrate it into the existing knowledge.Neither a multiple choice test nor short answer quiz can provide students with theopportunities to develop the kind of critical evaluative skills a thorough writingassignment can. Robert Kellogg states " [Writing] is a vehicle for expandingand transforming one's own knowledge base. [It] not only demands thinking, it isalso a means for thinking. By writing about a subject, one learns what one thinksabout the subject. This property of transforming knowledge is a fundamental componentof writing skill" [12, p.214]. Writing essays teachesstudents to research, plan, organize and structure their activities.
 
1.2 Basic principles of teaching writingessays: writing techniques and stages
Writing is an exerciseof mind requiring the mastery of techniques anyone can learn. While one system may work better for some and worse for others; thereare several general rules to stick to. There are many aspectsthat a student will have to keep in mind. The first important thing to do is toexamine the title of the topic. It can be assigned or not. Sometimes it is easierto have the topic given by the teacher. On the other hand, it may be an advantageto take the topic you want. Both have their pros and cons because there are so manythings to write about that you may get lost. When the topic has been assigned, youhave some definite sphere to work on. Each topic can be seen from various viewpoints.The student, however, should choose the one which is neither too narrow (it willnot have enough ideas to write about) nor too broad. Medecine is too general.You can take only one aspect to discuss — Euthanasia in medical practice.Then you must think about the purpose and the audience ofthe essay. The writer should understand the key words whichwill help to gather thoughts, to decide on the writing style and give some hints.It is a good rule always to write the title of the essay across the top of the openingpage. It reminds you what you are supposed to be doing. An essay can be good inalmost every other way and may be judged poor because it ignores the issues presentedin the title. You are never just asked to write all you know about a subject, orsimply describe something. You are set a specific problem to reflect upon in thelight of what you have been studying. Everything you say in the essay should berelevant to that task. You have to convince your readers that the point has somebearing on the title.
Successful academicwriting takes much more than just excellent writing skills and understanding ofthe topic. The whole secret lies in proper organization of an essay and followinga certain writing procedures. The essay goal is to conveyinformation, including the fact that you can write well. But it will not be achievedif the readers do not understand the first few sentences or paragraphs, and stopreading, or if they finish reading but fail to grasp the message. Learning how tobe a clear and accurate writer will help to make your essay readable and understandable.There are some guidelines which show how to clarify writing. Moreover, it is importantto recognize that you must commit yourself to a process. A finished paper is theresult of the complex interaction of activities that include several stages of development(see Table1), but some of them can be omitted. Nevertheless, these stages are believedto reflect generally how successful writing develops.
Stages of writingWriting process Definition Description Prewriting Generating ideas, strategies, and information for a given writing task. Prewriting activities take place before starting on the first draft of a paper. They include discussion, outlining, freewriting, journals, talk-write, metaphor etc. Planning Reflecting on the material produced during prewriting to develop a plan to achieve the aim of the paper. Planning involves considering your rhetorical stance, rhetorical purpose, the principal aim of the text, how these factors are interrelated, and how they are connected to the information generated during prewriting. Planning also involves selecting support for your claim and blocking out at least a rough organizational structure. Drafting Producing words on a computer or on paper that match (more or less) the initial plan for the work. Drafting occurs over time. Successful writers seldom try to produce an entire text in one sitting or even in one day. Pausing Moments when you aren’t writing but instead are reflecting on what you have produced and how well it matches your plan. Usually includes reading. Pausing occurs among successful and unsuccessful writers, but they use it in different ways. Successful writers consider “global" factors: how well the text matches the plan, how well it is meeting audience needs, and overall organization. Reading Moments during pausing when you read what you’ve written and compare it to your plan. Reading and writing are interrelated activities. Good readers are good writers and vice versa. The reading that takes place during writing is crucial to the reflection process during pausing. Revising Literally “re-seeing” the text with the goal of making large-scale changes so that text and plan match.
Revising occurs after you have finished your first draft. It involves making changes that enhance the match between plan
and text. Factors to consider usually are the same as those you considered during planning: rhetorical stance, rhetorical purpose, and so on. Serious revising almost always includes getting suggestions from friends or colleagues on how to improve the writing. Editing Focusing on sentence-level concerns, such as punctuation, sentence length, spelling, agreement of subjects and predicates, and style. Editing occurs after revising. The goal is to give your paper a professional appearance. Publishing Sharing your finished text with its intended audience. Publishing isn’t limited to getting a text printed in a journal. It includes turning a paper in to a teacher, a boss, or an agency.
(Table 1. PreparingTo Teach Writing by James D. Williams)
Prewriting is thefirst step in creating a successful essay. You need time to focus and shape yourthoughts which will result in a better final product. There are some prewritingstrategies that may be used both to generate new ideas and to clarify those youalready have. They can also be used effectively when you are faced with a numberof possible essay topics and must determine which vehicle is the best to expressyour unique thoughts and experiences.
The following prewritingtechniques can be listed:

1. Freewriting
2. />Brainstorming or listing
3. Concept mapping/webbing              by Lauren Starkey
4. Taking stock with the 5Ws              (How To Write Great Essays)
5. />Reading good writing
6. Discussion
7. Outlining                                          by James D. Williams
8. Talk-write                                        (Preparing To Teach Writing)
9. Metaphor
Depending on yourtopic some invention techniques may work better than others. The overall goal whenusing any method is to discover unique ideas.
Freewriting presupposesspending a predetermined period of time writing nonstop for 5, 10, or 15 minutes,focusing on a specific topic. It works best when you write in full sentences, butphrases are also effective. The key is to keep writing without regard for grammar,spelling, or worthiness of ideas. During this period, students keep generating words,even if they cannot think of anything meaningful to say. Sometimes freewriting iscombined with an activity called looping, in which students stop freewritingafter 5 minutes and reread what they have produced. If they find a good idea onthe page, they use it as the basis for another freewriting period.
Brainstorming meansjotting down concepts, individual thoughts or ideas that come into your head associatedwith the given topic, in note form and in random order. It involves creating a list.It will be especially helpful when you have to establish a point of view on a topicand support your position.
Mapping and webbingare visual organizers that allow you to see easily the relationships between a numberof diverse ideas and are best used for exploring topics that are not complex. Putyour central idea or subject in the middle, and add subtopics or related ideas aroundit in any order. Or draw a box with your subject written in it, and continue addingboxes, connected to each other by lines, showing the development of your idea.
Taking stock withthe 5Ws technique is particularly useful for choosing an essay topic and for focusingon it. Unlike some of the other prewriting techniques, taking stock should be donedeliberately, with great thought given to each question. Take a moment to give thebest answer you can for each question. Concentrate on the standard W’s: Who, What,Where, When and Why. These questions will help you to quickly develop a great dealof information about your subject.
Reading good writing can make a difference with your own. Reading mediocre writingwon’t help your essay, but if you consistently read great writing, syntax, structure,and style can improve under the influence of writers who are masters at their craft.
Discussion providesmultiple points of view on a given topic. Teachers usually initiate it by askingthe class questions regarding how to proceed. Discussions tend to be most helpfulwhen they occur a day or so after students receive an assignment. The time in betweenallows students to begin formulating a plan that they can modify and enrich throughthe discussion.
Outlines can bea very beneficial invention device if used properly. However, the focus is veryoften on the structural details. First, group related ideas together, looking formajor topics (which can be headings) and minor ones (which can be subheadings, examplesor details). Outlines start with general points and shift to specific ones. Defineyour major points, and rearrange them until they make sense and follow a logicalprogression. You will be able to see the relationships between your ideas and determinetheir importance. If you need more supporting details or facts-subcategories-youcan add them now. The outline of the possible topic is suggested below:
/>
Talk-write techniqueis based on the perception that speaking, listening, reading, writing and thinkingare intimately related and mutually reinforcing. It involves asking students toconstruct a plan mentally and to deliver an oral composition to the class. Classmatesprovide suggestions and comments designed to help improve and elaborate the plan.The next step is to begin writing. It is usually easier as a result and tends tobe more successful because a person has to understand a topic to explain it to others.A valuable benefit is that making such oral presentations is likely to increaseone’s self-confidence about speaking in public [] Zoellner
/>Metaphor isa feature of style. However, it can be a powerful model-building device that helpsstudents generate ideas and information. The novelist Richard Wright left in hisBlack Boy a valuable record of how metaphor can work as an invention technique.In the first draft of this essay Wright listed a number of books that had influencedhim, and then he stated that “these books were like eyeglasses, enabling me to seemy environment”, then he changed from “eyeglasses" to “eyes" (IIdraft)books were no longer “eyes" but “windows” (final draft). He told, for example,that the books that influenced him were “eyes" through which he could see theworld as the authors saw it, enabling him to “understand and grasp" his ownexperiences. It allowed Wright to become the agent of seeing and not the others’sight beneficiary.
 1.3 organization of the essays. Essaystructure
Not only writing stages and techniques are important, but also there are problems with syntactic organization of a text and cohesion which are the basis for writing. Byrne describes that “Writing is learned through a process of instruction — we have to master the written form of the language and to learn certain structures which are less used in speech, or perhaps not used at all. We also have to learn how to organize our ideas in such a way that they can be understood by a reader” [3, p.98]
Learners should payspecial attention to the structure and organization of the essay. It can take manyforms. Understanding how the movement of thought is managed through an essay hasa profound impact on its overall cogency and ability to impress. Teacher should teach students step by step how to express their thoughtson the paper, in which order, what linking words to use, what common mistakes toavoid. If you want to teach somebody to write different things, your task is tomake the process of writing interesting. The problem is that very often people imagineessays just in form of boring, serious writings on scientific or educational topics.As the result, they have no desire to do such things or to learn how to do them.At first, learners can try writing without any plans, so that to be used to puttingideas into the written form. Show that essay topics can be various. Teach peoplecreativity; show them how to use imagination. Slowly you should make this processmore complex. Try to teach them to recognize topic sentences and to write theirown, to conduct a substantial research on the topic, back up statements with samples,introduce how to organize paragraphs in a coherent way, what vocabulary to use;give them samples of the essays to study and then ask different questions relatedto them etc. When learners go through various examples ofessays, these will serve as guides and help in writing the assigned task. Give them a hint to successful writing by introducing the structure ofthe essay which should be preserved. It is difficult for creative mind to be madeto write within some definite framework; it is suppressed by structural dependence.Notwithstanding, it may be a very easy task if you are taught at the beginning ofyour learning process to use various writing techniques and structural models, toexpress yourself according to some general rules in writing essays. Structure isimportant in essay. It will help to follow dynamic interchangeof author's arguments, supporting evidence and questions. The reader will be ableto grasp the message encoded by the writer. The essay must have at least three paragraphs.Academic writing, however, usually comprises five paragraphs organized in a coherentway: introduction, body with mainly three paragraphs, and conclusion. Each paragraph should have a clear, singular focus. One of the commoneststudents’ errors in writing essays is shifting topics within the same paragraph,rather than continuing to develop the idea they began with. If you want to starta new topic, begin a new paragraph instead. />/> Paragraphusually consists of the topic sentence, the supporting sentences and the concludingone. A topic sentence is generally the first sentence ofthe paragraph. It is concise and emphatic. Topic sentence contains the main idea of the paragraph, thus orientingthe reader to the purpose of this piece of writing. To attractattention they sometimes appear in the form of rhetorical questions. When you use topic sentences, your reader will find it easier to followyour thoughts and arguments. Supporting sentences illustrate the main idea withexamples and explanations, give details, elaborate on causes and effects, comparisonand contrasts, anticipate and respond to counterarguments. The concluding sentencefinishes the paragraph by giving the final comment. The following exercise can helpin teaching students to distinguish these types of sentences.
Find the topic, concluding and supporting sentencesin the paragraph given:
A stitch in time saves nine. My mother, wholikes sewing, used this simple saying to teach me the value of working on problemswhen they are still small. Originally, the saying referred to sewing — if you havea small hole in a shirt? You can repair it with one stitch. But if you wait, thehole will get larger, and it will take you nine stitches. This simple example remindsme to take care of small problems before they become big problems.
When the learners know how to formtopic, supporting and concluding sentences, they are ready to start to write introduction.It is the first and very important paragraph in the essay. It is here that the writer will have to get the attention of the reader,introduce him to the theme and focus his attention on the main argument by presentinga thesis statement. The introduction should always begin with something interesting.The writer may begin his essay by giving an anecdote, posing a question to his readers,presenting some interesting facts or by an exciting quotation relevant to the essay.The topic should be introduced clearly. You must avoid repeating the exact wordsof the topic, paraphrasing them will display your language skills. Concerning grammarthe introduction will normally be in the present tense (e. g. people complain),or the present continuous (people are gradually becoming aware), or in the presentperfect tense (people have pointed out). It is normally organized by giving firstgeneral ideas and leading to the more specific one, which is the thesis statement.The latter should indicate the point of discussion. For example, if you write anessay on hunger, you might say: World hunger has many causes and effects. Thisis a weak thesis statement for two major reasons. First, «world hunger»can't be discussed thoroughly in five or ten pages. Second, «many causes andeffects» is vague. You should be able to identify specific causes and effects.Hunger persists in Africa because jobs are scarce and farming in the infertilesoil is rarely profitable is a strong thesis. It narrows the subject to a morespecific and manageable topic and it also identifies the specific causes for theexistence of hunger. This thesis statement is a transitional «hook» whichmoves the reader to the first paragraph of the body of the essay.
The main body explainsand supports the thesis statement, develops and illustrates the points you wishto make. It should be the easiest part to write. Using your outline and notes, tryto rank ideas in order of importance. The first paragraph of the body should includethe strongest argument as well as the second one. The third paragraph, however,usually presents the weakest argument. The main body is characterized by differentevidences and examples, it is necessary to discuss positive and negative aspects.The writer can display power of analysis, personal understanding of complex topics.Do not feel you have to put in everything you have learned. Relevance and independenceof thought are of importance. Take all the time you can to fully develop your ideas.If you stop writing too soon, it may be because you have not explained yourselfcompletely, or backed up your assertions with examples. Do not simply state thatsomething is true, prove it. There may be several ideas which must be supported.Not every supporting point will have details, though, some will have several details.Those make your essay stand out. You should include, however, only information thatpertains to your topic. Qualify your answers for accuracy. If you cannot rememberan exact date, approximate-“late eighteenth century" is better than 1988 if1988 is incorrect. When you feel that you expressed everything you wanted, yourthoughts are backed up by evidences and examples, you may proceed with concludingpart of your essay.
The concluding paragraphmust summarize the entire essay and reiterate the thesis statement presented inthe introduction. It must be remembered that new facts and data cannot be presentedhere. A strong concluding statement at the end helps to convince the reader. Youcan effectively reinforce the points, made in the body but remember to reword themand keep the conclusion fresh. It's not enough just to restateyour main ideas — if you only did that and then ended your essay, this part wouldbe flat and boring. You should not use phrases such as “Iwrote about" or “This essay was about. ” Drawing a conclusion often involvessummarizing of the main points already made. A common mistake is to write the endthat does not follow logically from what has been written before. This is sometimescalled a ‘non-sequitur’. If you have the time, end with something more interestinggiving a thought-provoking quotation, talking about consequencesor implications, stating what action needs to be done. Aspeculative conclusion refers to a future possibility or prediction, such as “perhapsyears from now. ” If you write about a problem, try to offer a solution. If youhave a fitting quotation, use it to finish your essay. The person quoted does nothave to be famous, but the quote should help you to make your point. Although beaware that you cannot overcome a weak essay with a clever conclusion. Your conclusionis the final impression left with your reader. Author needto say something that will continue to simmer in the readers’ minds long after theyhave put down this essay.
2. Chapter 2
 2.1 Types of essays. Essay samples
The informationto use and the tips for writing depend on the essay type. Essays consist mainlyof assignments set by instructors for the students to test their understanding andknowledge levels on a particular topic, abilities to presentthe balanced comprehension of it. There are many differenttypes of essays a professor may choose from. The teacher may ask students to writea discursive essay to check their analytical skills or may instruct them to writea descriptive essay to simply test the power of expression and logical thinkingof his students. Choice of essays also to some extent depends on the subject studied.Different purposes and types of writing aim at various membersof the discourse community.
It is easier to teach at first descriptive essaysand then discursive ones. The former are personally relevant to the students. Theymay focus on people, places and buildings, objects and events. It is not so simpleto describe what you observe. The best way to create a vividexperience for your readers is to make use of senses: sight, sound, smell, touch,taste. They enable readers to imagineor experience something by themselves. Sensory details appealto their emotional, physical or intellectual sensibilities. Description uses toolssuch as denotative and connotative language, metaphors and similes to arrive ata dominant impression. People Places/Buildings Events Introduction
Paragraph 1
Brief information about who the person is, where/how you met
Paragraph 1
Name/location/population/state the reason for choosing this or that
Paragraph 1
Set the scene, name/type, time/ date, place, reasons for. Main body
Paragraph 2
Physical appearance: height, age, facial features, hair, clothing etc.
Paragraph 3
Personality/behavior with justifications and examples
Paragraph 4
Life/lifestyle, hobbies, beliefs, interests, everyday activities
Paragraphs 5-6
Explanations and examples
Paragraphs 2-3
General features and particular details: surroundings, facilities, exterior/interior, places to go, free-time activities
Paragraphs 4-5
Explanations and examples
Paragraph 2
Preparations
Paragraph 3
Description of event itself: food, atmosphere, activities
Paragraphs 4-5
Explanations and reasons: its significance Conclusion
Final paragraph
Comments, feelings and opinion about the person
Final paragraph
Feelings, opinion and give a recommendation
Final paragraph
Comments, feelings and opinion
Consider the topic carefully and describe thingsrelevant to it, some points may be unnecessary. When writing on the topic “Describea person who has done a great deal for others, and explain how he or she has managedto achieve so much”, it will be irrelevant to describe appearance. The descriptionmust be supported with examples; use a variety of adjectives to make a compositionmore interesting. The adjectives must be ordered in the following way: opinion,size/weight, age, shape, colour, pattern, origin, material. It is advisable notto use them one after another; it will sound unnatural.mild language should be usedwhen the learner wants to describe some negative qualities (e. g. tend to, seemto, can occasionally etc. — Peter tends to be impolite). To avoid simple sentencesand same structures, different linking words are to be introduced.
There are various descriptive types of essays.Three main of them are presented below and suggested by Virginia Evans.
Essay samples People My next-door neighbour
 Mavis has been my neighbour for six years. I first met her when she knocked on my door and asked for a spade because she hadn't yet unpacked hers. She had only moved in two days before.
Physically, Mavis looks younger than most other women in their late sixties. She is of average height, neither fat nor thin. Her plump round face is framed by a mass of wavy white hair and her sparkling blue eyes show her humour and friendliness. She prefers wearing casual, comfortable clothes. I don't think I have ever seen her in a perfectly ironed suit.
As for her personality, Mavis's most striking characteristic is her generosity. My house, as well as most of our neighbours', nearly always has a vase of flowers from her garden in the living room. Mavis is very good — natured and always has time for a chat. She is also patient. She hardly ever gets annoyed about anything, except when children pick her favourite roses and lilies. However, she tends to be quite stubborn — once she has made a decision, nothing can change her mind.
Mavis always seems to be busy doing something. She spends a lot of her time looking after her garden and often participates in local flower shows. When she is not in her garden she is usually off somewhere raising money for one charity or another.
All in all, Mavis is the perfect next-door neighbour. Since the day she moved in, we have grown very close and I am very fond of her, even if I am woken up by the noise of her lawnmower early in the morning! Places London and its curiosities
 Set in the heart of southern England, London is one of the biggest and busiest cities in Europe. A truly international city, London attracts millions of visitors every year from all over the world, yet never loses its own unique charm.
London has many impressive sights to see, ranging from the historical beauty of St. Paul’s Cathedral and Big Ben to Buckingham Palace and the Houses of Parliament. In this city of contrasts, you can be walking along one of the busiest streets, yet still be less than a mile from one of the many huge, peaceful parks. London is a great cultural center, too; the National Gallery contains one of the finest collections of classical paintings in the world.
London is also well-known for other things apart from its monuments and art galleries. Shoppers will enjoy visiting the department stores on Oxford Street or they could try Harrods, the most exclusive shop in London. For evening entertainment, the choice of theaters is enormous. From the famous Southbank Theater complex to the smaller theaters on Covent Garden, there is no end of plays to see. Soho and its pavement cafes are also worth visiting.
London is an exceptional place, a truly modern city that has managed to keep its traditional style and sense of history. You may get exhausted in London, but one thing is certain; you will never get bored, as Dr. Johnson once said, “When a man is tired of London, he is tired of life. ” Events Describe an annual event that you attended and explain why you enjoyed it
 About four years ago I was invited to a Halloween party at the home of a friend. I was reluctant at first but I decided to go to help out with the arrangements.
On the afternoon of the party, I drove to my friend's house with a huge box of materials which I thought might be useful for the preparations. The children were full of enthusiasm as they worked on their masks and costumes. But the best part of all was making the lanterns. I was amazed at the imagination that the children showed when cutting grotesque faces out of the hollowed-out pumpkins. The mood of anticipation was so intense that, by the time the last costume had been made, I was as excited as the children.
By six o’clock, the party was well under way and the house was full of screaming children, with me running around in a mask trying to scare them. At one point during the evening, prizes were awarded to the children who made the best costumes. Games were organized, including one where the children had their hands tied behind their backs while they tried to pick apples out of a barrel of water using only their teeth. When the party finally ended, the children left in a noisy group, running ahead of their parents and doing their best to scare any unfortunate passers-by.
Rediscovering what it is like to have fun without feeling embarrassed was a fantastic experience. My initial hesitation disappeared once I had decided to get involved. Helping with the children’s games enabled me to enter into the party spirit. I saw it as an opportunity to experience the sheer joy that comes so naturally to children.
Another thing that made it particularly enjoyable occasion was that it bought back memories of my childhood experiences. I remembered my own excitement when we were dressing up in scary costumes, and the thrill of going from house to house, bags held open for whatever goodies would be put in when we shouted, 'Trick or treat! ' I also remembered the time we had been chased by a stingy neighbour after spraying his windows with shaving foam.
Since those days I had nearly forgotten about Halloween, but this party gave me so much pleasure that now it is a regular fixture in my diary. I think everyone should have the chance to feel like a child at least once a year.
Discursive writing is a goodway to learn how to logically structure an argument and how to anticipate and counterthe arguments of the other side. There exist various types of discursive essays:
Ø For and against essay is a formal piece of writingwhere the writer should consider the topic from various perspectives. Argumentsare to be presented in a fair and objective way with as many justifications, examplesand reasons as possible.
Ø Opinion essay requires the author’s opinion on atopic stated clearly from various viewpoints, supported by reasons and/or examples.An opposite point of view should also be presented. It comprises a combination ofpersonal and argumentative approaches. The writer’s main task is to persuade thereader of author’s rightness and to make readers take the same position.
Ø Essay suggesting solution to problems makes a thoroughanalysis of the problem, states its causes clearly, giving possible ways of solvingit at the same time. The consequences and the results of the suggested actions arealso specified. For and Against Opinion Solution to Problems Introduction
Paragraph 1
State topic (without giving your opinion)
Paragraph 1
State the topic and your opinion
Paragraph 1
State the problem and its causes/effects Main body
Paragraphs 2-3
Arguments for and justifications, examples or reasons
Paragraphs 4-5
Arguments against and justifications, examples or reasons
Paragraphs 2-4
View points and reasons/examples
Paragraph 5
Opposing viewpoint and reason/example
Paragraphs 2-5
Suggestions and results Conclusion
Final paragraph
Balanced consideration or opinion
Final paragraph
Summarize/restate your opinion
Final paragraph
Summarize your opinion

Virginia Evans gives the following samples ofthese types: Essay samples For and against essay Censorship is necessary in modern society
Censorship is an issue which frequently generates a great deal of heated debate, with supporters maintaining that it is vital in order to protect society, whilst opponents claim that it is an unjustifiable restriction of public access to information.
Firstly, all countries have secrets which must be safeguarded for reasons of national security. For instance, if an enemy country were to acquire such highly sensitive information, the effects could be catastrophic. Consequently, governments have to have the power to restrict access to information concerning areas such as the armed forces or particular aspects of foreign policy.
Secondly, it is often argued that censorship is necessary to prevent the broadcast and publication of obscene material which is considered offensive or harmful to public morals. Many people feel that, without censorship the public would be constantly subjected to material that the majority would find offensive. For this reason, the government has a duty to impose certain restrictions on the mass media by censoring films and texts which contain explicit scenes of sex, violence or foul language.
In contrast, opponents of censorship point out that when it is abused by governments, censorship becomes an instrument used to misinform society and maintain power. In order to control the flow of information which riches the public, repressive regimes try to put constraints on the media, thus denying citizens the right to information owing to the fact that governments believe it may lead them to seek greater freedom.
Furthermore, it is generally felt that mature adults are able to make informed choices about what they watch, read and listen to and should, therefore, be permitted to make their own decisions. For example, some comedians make use of offensive language taboo subjects in their performances. Critics of censorship argue that the only people who will watch or listen to such material are adults who have made a conscious decision to do so. Thus, it is claimed, it is unjust to censor material like this since it is not forced upon people who may subsequently be offended by it.
All things considered, it can be concluded that a certain degree of censorship is always necessary. The best course of action would be to attempt to achieve a balance between the requirements of the country and the public on the one hand, and individuals’ rights on the other. Opinion essay Although the position of women in society today has improved, there is still a great deal of sexual discrimination.
Throughout this century, the role of women within society has changed, and the majority of people feel that this change is for the better. More women work than ever before, and it is accepted in Western culture that many women now have careers. Nonetheless, in my opinion there is still a great deal of sexual equality has been achieved is not altogether accurate.
To begin with, many women find it very difficult to return to work after having children. The main reason for this is that there are rarely any provisions made for childcare in the workplace and, in these cases, women are forced to find someone to look after the children while they are at work. Obviously, this can prove to be a time-consuming and expensive process, yet it must be done if mothers are to be able to resume their careers.
Secondly, the traditional views of the position of women within society are so deeply ingrained that they have not really changed. For instance, not only is the view that women should stay at home and look after their family still widely held, but it is reinforced through images seen on television programmes and advertisements. An example of this is that few men are ever seen doing housework on television, since this is traditionally thought of as “a woman’s job”.
Thirdly, since families often need two incomes in order to enjoy a good standard of living, a woman finds herself doing two jobs: one at home and one at the office. So, it could be said that a woman’s position has, in fact, deteriorated rather than improved, with the result that women carry the burdens of equality but get none of the benefits.
In contrast, there are some people who claim that the problem of sexual discrimination no longer exists. They point out that women do, after all, have legal rights intended to protect them from discrimination. In addition, a few women are now beginning to reach top positions as judges, business leaders and politicians, while a number of other previously all-male professions are opening their ranks to women. Nonetheless, these examples are not the norm and discrimination is still very much with us.
Taking these points into consideration, I would say that the position of women has improved only slightly. While, rules and laws have changed, it is the deep-rooted opinions of people within society which are taking a longer time to evolve. Needless to say, until these attitudes have changed, sexual discrimination will remain a problem which we all need to face and fight against. Solutions to problems essay What could be done to improve the lives of the elderly?
For many elderly people the latter part of their life is not a time to relax and enjoy retirement, but rather a difficult and unhappy period, owing to financial worries, failing health and loneliness. As life expectancy increases, the average person lives well beyond the age of retirement. As a result, the elderly make up an ever-increasing percentage of society, which makes it more important than ever for a real effort to be made in improving the lives of senior citizens.
One way to deal with the situation would be to ensure that the elderly have enough money on which to live. Obviously, when a person stops working, they still require a source of income to cover their basic needs such as food, accommodation and heating. A clear solution to the problem is for the government to make sure that the state pension is adequate for these needs. Furthermore, free financial advice should be made available to retired people so that the stress of worrying about money could be reduced as far as possible.
Steps should also be taken to overcome problems the elderly face as a result of deteriorating health due to old age, and inadequate health-care provisions. Again, the responsibility should fall to the government to provide access to the best health care available, which may necessitate paying for residential homes where the elderly can have round-the-clock nursing, or, at the very least, providing medication free of charge to all people over a certain age. As a result, old people would enjoy not only better health, but also peace of mind from the knowledge that they need not fear falling ill and being unable to pay for treatment.
The lives of old people could also be improved if attempts were made to address the problem of social isolation which so many of them face. If we organised trips for the elderly to community centers, visits from social workers or free bus passes to allow pensioners greater mobility, the effect would be alleviate the problem of loneliness which marks the lives of so many old people living alone far from their families.
One final suggestion, which would help enormously, is to change the attitude of the community towards its older members, who are all too often seen as a burden on society and dismissed as having little to do with modern life. We need to be taught from an early age to respect the views of old people, and appreciate their broader experience of life. This would help society as a whole, and encourage appreciation of the role that old people can still play today.
To sum up, there are several measures which could be taken to improve the lives of old people. If the government and individuals alike were to help, it would make retirement and old age a time to look forward to, rather than dread.
A discursive essay presupposes followingsome rules. It should be written in a formal style. Topic sentence for introducingthe subject of each paragraph, passive voice and impersonal constructions, use ofquotations and references to other sources, linking words and phrases are of greatimportance. The learners should avoid contracted forms and colloquial expressions(e. g. lots of), over-generalizations (e. g. I absolutely detest…) and too emotionalexpressions, a series of simple sentences. It is better to combine simple sentenceswith complex and compound ones.
 2.2 Punctuation. Word choice
The learners must be successful intheir compositions, knowing some basic requirements for essay writing and consideringessay types carefully. The paragraphs must be structured in a cohesive way. A logical presentation of facts is essential for the reader to understandthe topic well and approach the words in the right way. Language must be simpleand smooth flowing and care must be taken to avoid all kinds of grammatical, spellingand punctuation errors.
Punctuation is vital to disambiguatethe meaning of sentences. There are some general rules concerning this.
The first word in a sentence, names of organizations,people/places, days and months, nationalities and languages should be capitalized.A capital letter is used for the most important words (nouns, verbs, adjectivesand adverbs) of titles of books, programs, films etc. (e. g. Indiana Jones and the Lost Temple);
Comma is used:
· to separate words in a list, phrases or clauses aswell as to separate long sentences link by as, or, and, but etc. For example, Timbrought the sandwiches, and Diana brought a bunch of grapes for the picnic;
· to mark a clause giving extra information which isnot essential for the meaning of the main clause (non-defining relative clause):The Tate Modern, which is the newest museum in London, has excellent facilitiesfor children.
· after certain linking words (e. g. however, therefore,for example, to sum up etc.)
· when if-clause begins the sentence, no comma is usedwhen the if-clause follow the main one.
Apostrophes (’)are used with possessives, e. g. The professor’s secretary, and to show contractions,e. g. It’s generally believed …However, they are not common in academic English. Semi-colons(;) show the link between two connected phrases when a commawould be too weak and a full stop too strong. They are quite rare in most typesof writing. Colons (:) introduceexplanations, e. g. The meeting was postponed: the Deanwas ill, and start a list, e. g. Two factors were discussed: cultural and social.
Question mark isused to end a direct question; however, we use a full stop to end an indirect question(e. g. He asked me what I was doing.) Exclamation mark is used in exclamatory sentence.Italics are used to show the titles of books, plays, films: Romeo and Juliet aswell as for names of hotels, restaurants. Hyphens (-) areused with certain compound words: well-educated/co-operative/four-year-old.Dots (…) are used to show omissions. Brackets () are usedto contain information of lesser importance: There wereonly 40 marriages (out of 14.900) in which ‘baker’ was listed. Single quotation marks are used to emphasize a word, to give quotationsfrom other writers and to show direct speech: The word ‘quiz’was first used in the nineteenth century. ‘Can anyone find the answer? ’ asked thelecturer. Double quotation marks are used to show quotationsinside quotations (nested quotations): As Murphy has observed:‘Concepts of “typical” need careful examination’. They are also used for the names of articles and chapters, but for book and journal titlesuse italics. Full stops and commas are placed inside quotation marks. You should also focus on the grammar concepts for the essay to have sense.
Another issue to consider is the languageyou use. Inappropriate language leads to misunderstandingor communication breakdown. The common error is the use of translation from themother tongue. By translating word for word the student uses the wrong sentencepatterns and the wrong vocabulary. Another cause of writing errors is the choiceof long and complicated sentences with far too many supplementary clauses. The longerthe sentence the bigger is the chance of making mistakes and failing to communicatethe meaning. Therefore, in the early stages of your writing choose short and simplesentences to build up a basic essay-writing style. You can play with more complexwords and grammatical structures later, when you have acquired some basic techniques.Do not use words specifically to show off your vocabulary. In most cases when anessay is given to write, there is a word limit stated, i. e. an indication how manywords you should not exceed in your composition. Having a limit is a way to ensurethat you select the most relevant words to express your thoughts. Moreover, keepingto the word limits is a part of good practice and a sign that you possess certainskills. The best way to stay within the limits is to plan your essay. William Strunk states that «Vigorous writing is concise. A sentenceshould contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary sentences, for thesame reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines and a machine no unnecessaryparts.» [p.29] Similarly in an essay, all sentences and paragraphs must havean essential function and purpose. Knowing that all synonyms have a subtle nuanceof meaning making it distinct from the other words will help you avoid random substitutionsof words that merely seem to look better. It is importantto choose the right word to convey meaning. For instance, Devlin's essay predicates that a society consists of a group ofpeople brought together by a common set of morals and assurances is not the best choice of words. Whereas the sentence Devlin's essayasserts that a society consists of a group of people brought together by a commonset of morals and beliefs displays your proper knowledge of vocabulary.
On the other hand, according to Truman Capote, «The greatest pleasure of writing isnot what it is about, but the music the words make.» [p.14] Nevertheless, yourlexis must be rich and relevant to the topic to express everything you mean fromdifferent perspectives. Editing the language can be tedious, but it is essentialto polish it to the point that it is pleasing to read and has literary style. Thestyle must display a variety of sentence types, well-chosenconnectors and appropriate vocabulary. To establish emphasis learners can employsubordination and coordination. This allows you to emphasizedifferent parts of the sentence, so that the more important phrase is clear. Coordinationinvolves combining clauses where neither clause is more emphasized than the other.On the other hand, subordination involves designating one clause to be more importantthan the other. It is up to you to decide what type to choose. It is essential tomention the role of linking words in this case.
 2.3 Linking words and phrases
Put downyour thoughts in clear sentences that flow logically from one to another. To becoherent a paragraph must satisfy two criteria: relevance (every idea must relateto the topic) and effective order(ideas must be arranged in a way that clarifiestheir logic or their importance and help the reader to follow and understand thewriter’s thoughts). An appropriate use of paragraphs is an essential part of writingwell-structured essays: In addition to problemsof obesity, America's youth also suffer from increasing amounts of psychologicalstress. The transition is made from obesity to psychologicalstress providing a bridge between paragraphs. Transitions are useful when moving fromparagraph to paragraph, from one point to another to form logical flow. Every essayyou write should have this feeling of continuity. Connectors will occur throughoutyour essay. The most common ones are those that are used for listing, addition,consequences and emphasis. Chronology Comparison Contrast Addition Examples Causes/Effects
before
after
next
since
first
second
while
when
as soon as
likewise
similarly
compare to/with
as…as
not only…but also
the same as
just like
also
too
however
on the other hand
on the contrary
whereas
but/yet
despite/in spite of
in contrast
although/even though
instead
nevertheless
nonetheless
in theory…in practice
and
also
in addition
too
as well as
furthermore
moreover
apart from
besides
in fact
another…is
for example
for instance
in general
in particular
namely
especially
such as
like
including
therefore
so
thus
as a result
since
because
for
due to/owing to
as
consequently
hence
for this reason Sequence Opinion Advantage/Disadvantage Conclusion
first/to start with/to begin with
first of all
secondly/after this (that) /next/then
third/thirdly
finally/lastly/last but not least
moreover/furthermore
one…
another…
the former…the latter
in my opinion
in my view
to my mind
(personally) I believe
I feel strongly that
it seems to me that
I think that
the first (dis) advantage
one (dis) advantage
another (dis) advantage
the main (dis) advantage
the greatest advantage of
finally
lastly
all things considered
in conlusion
to sum up
to crown it all
all in all
taking everything into account
on the whole /> /> /> /> /> /> />
Cause and effect:because, as andsince introduce a cause; so, therefore, consequentlyand as a result introduce an effect. Because, as and since are usually usedin the middle or at the beginning: I stayed at home, because it was raining. Becauseit was raining, I stayed at home. Therefore, consequently and as a result are usedat the beginning; it is not possible with so. It was raining; therefore, I stayedat home. It was raining. Consequently, I stayed at home. Due to/owing to and becauseof introduce a cause in the form of a noun phrase: Due to the rise in oil prices,the inflation rate rose by 1.25%.
The most commonway of giving examples is by using for example orfor instance. Namelyrefers to something by name, i. e. There are two problems: namely, the expense andthe time. Such as cannot begin a clause. It is followed by a noun or gerund.
Ideas are often linked by and. In a list,you put a comma between each item, but not before and: We discussed training, educationand the budget. Also is used to add an extra idea or emphasis: We also spokeabout marketing. Do not usually start a sentence with also. If you want to starta sentence with a phrase that means also, you can use In addition or In additionto this. You can use also with not only to give emphasis: We are concerned not onlyby the costs, but also by the competition. As well as can be used at thebeginning or in the middle of a sentence. Too goes either at the end of the sentenceor after the subject and means as well: They were concerned too/They, too, wereconcerned. Moreover andfurthermore add extra information to the pointyou are making.
Sequencing ideas: the former and the latter are useful when you want to refer to one of two points:Marketing and finance are both covered in the course. The former is studied in thefirst term and the latter is studied in the final term. Firstly, secondly, … finally(or lastly) are useful ways to list ideas.
Contrasting ideas: but is more informal than however. It is not normally used at thebeginning of a sentence He works hard, but he doesn't earn much. He works hard.However, he doesn't earn much. The use of the linking words ‘However’ at the beginningof the second paragraph and ‘Nevertheless’ at the start of the third paragraphprovides essential signposts for the reader to follow the argument that is beingmade. Despite and in spite of must be followed by a noun. If you want tofollow them with a noun and a verb, you must use the fact that: Despite the factthat the company was doing badly, they took on extra employees. In theory… in practice…show an unexpected result: In theory, teachers should prepare for lessons, but inpractice, they often don't have enough time.
Do not overuse these connectors. It is veryboring to read one of these at the beginning of each sentence. Make yourself familiarwith the most useful ones and be careful to use them accurately or your logic willappear faulty. With the help of linking words a continuity or flow is establishedfor the essay that reassures the reader that you know where you are going withoutguessing how one paragraph relates to the other.
 2.4 Plagiarism
The difficultiesin understanding and following the writer’s thoughts which are not connected ina cohesive piece of writing may be caused by plagiarizing. While it is always good to use quotes to show that you have read widely,you should make sure that the essay is written in your own words, otherwise youmay be accused of cheating. Students are aware of the many Internet sites offeringessays. What they may not realize is that teachers are aware of them. Tutors areusually very familiar with the difference between the way students write and theway experienced authors write, and soon notice when a student lurches between an‘expert’ and a ‘beginner’ style. The advice is simple: write your own essay. Donot even waste your time reading other people’s essays looking for ideas. It isone thing to read to understand the process, and another to take these ideas andwords as your own. This approach will not get you good marks. Indeed, when tutorsreveal this they will tend to assume you understand very little and you will getlower mark. Worse, you do not develop your own writing style. If you persist inparroting other people's words rather than expressing your own thoughts, then youare likely to remain a beginner for a long time. And you will not learn much aboutthe ideas in the course either. It is difficult to elaborate various ideas, to presentthe topic from different perspectives. That is the reason why some students aretempted to ‘lift’ sections of words from textbooks and articles and put them intheir essays without using quotation marks or acknowledging the source. When youare quoting draw upon a wide variety of sources to ensurethat you have examined the issue from multiple perspectives. There are three mainways to integrate quotations into your essay: (1) direct quotation, (2) paraphrase,and (3) mixed quotation. Direct quotation involves quoting word for word one ormore sentences from an author or source. When you quote, be sure to introduce yourquotation with a signal phrase. It is another issue to consider. Signal phrase isa clause before the quotation that identifies the author (e. g., «Jones says,»or «According to Jones. „). It is essential to create a bridge betweenyour own voice and that of another you are incorporating into your essay. Avoidputting the article title in the signal phrase. It is better to include paper itselfor the author. Suppose you are using a quotation that appears inside an articlewritten by someone other than the one saying the quotation. In other words, if youare using, say, Judge Davidson's quotation that appears within Oliver Gardner'sarticle, you cite it by writing “qtd. in» following the quote: Accordingto Judge Davidson, «just law is the foundation of a just society» (qtd.in Gardner). Paraphrase, instead of quoting the author word for word, involves puttingthe original phrasing into your own words. Be careful to substantially reword theoriginal, however. If you leave just several words in a row unchanged, it will beconsidered plagiarism. Mixed quotations are a mix between direct quotation and paraphrase.Mixed quotations involve paraphrasing half of the original but mixing in a few directselections from the author. When you insert them, be sure to blend in the quotationwith the grammar of your own sentence. The sentence as a whole must flow smoothly.To achieve this you may need to omit or add words from or to the original. To omitwords, insert an ellipsis. in place of the words you take out. Ellipses always indicateomission. To add words, put them inside brackets [] to indicate the insertion. Noticethat there are spaces between the ellipses’ dots and that the brackets are square,not rounded like parentheses. For instance, Cummings asserted that the poet's imaginationand his «preoccupation with the Verb» results in an ability to surpassnormal standards of logic and create «an irresistible truth [in which] 2 x2 = 5». Notice that the words «in which» inside brackets are insertions.You needed to add them so that the sentence would flow grammatically. Nevertheless,support your quotations with commentary, interpretation, or analysis. Avoid justdropping in the quotation and then immediately moving on, assuming the reader fullyunderstands the meaning, purpose, and application of the quotation just presented.
You should practise expressing your perceptionsand observations in your own words. They may not come out very well to begin withbut like a learner in any field you have to be prepared to make mistakes sometimesand allow others to help you learn. When you are writing an essay you are oftenworking with ideas and terms you are not familiar with. This makes it difficultfor you to produce a clear, coherent argument. Learners have come to dislike writingor fear it and usually they avoid it or steal other people’s thoughts. Though goodwriting takes hard work and skill, it is possible for anyone to produce a lot ofwriting with pleasure and to figure out what he or she really means without plagiarizing.Do not be afraid to express your own opinions and feelings. You are a vital partof the subject. No matter what the topic is, you are really writing about how youunderstand it andfeel about it. Good writing has personality. This doesn'tmean you have to flatter your readers or avoid saying something they may disagreewith. It is your job to guide them, to make their task as easy as the subject allows.Armed with the belief in ability to express their thoughtsand knowledge of some basic writing rules, learners will feel confident and theirwriting will begin to mature. The final task when writing an essay is to reflectupon the feedback received from the tutor or other students. This may be invaluablein helping to improve learner’s essay writing skills for future work.
On the whole, writing is a challengingactivity that “demands conscious intellectual effort, whichusually has to be sustained over a considerable period of time because cognitiveskills are involved” [20, p.38]. Everything should be takeninto consideration: writing techniques and stages, organization and structure, linkingphrases and punctuation, word choice and its implementation. It will help the readerto decode the message and the essay will be written in a persuasive, powerful andcohesive way.
Conclusion
Writing is a crucialand fundamental skill that must not be left out of the language learning process.It tends to be both the most demanding and rewarding part of any course of study.Critical thinking is crucial for effective writing. It is essential to understandtexts and to produce an essay that addresses complex topics.
A logical presentation of facts and data isessential for the reader to understand the topic well. The essay should includeintroduction, main body and conclusion. Each paragraph must be focused on separateissue. Linking words are used to connect ideas and sentences, so that people canfollow writer’s ideas easily. They act as bridges betweenparagraphs. All presented arguments must be backed by evidences.Through the construction of detailed, reasoned and balancedarguments students consolidate what you have learned and apply key principles andtheories in such a way that is both interesting to them and informative to the reader.Learners must acknowledge the quotations clearly. Languagemust be simple and smooth flowing and care must be taken to avoid all kinds of grammatical,spelling, stylistic errors.
The learners must get used to implementing effective strategies for writing: prewriting, gathering information,planning, structuring, drafting, revising, editing and presentation. They should have a purpose when writing, recognize that different audienceshave different needs, use a level of formality that is appropriate to the task,and use writing conventions that are appropriate to a given situation, taking intoconsideration different types of essays.
Writing essays isa very important part of studying:
· it deepens students’ learning of the subject studied,consolidates their understanding;
· it provides a unique form of feedback because theprocess immediately becomes the product in writing;
· it stimulates the mind touse ideas to argue a case, support it with examples;
· it enables students to enter into a dialogue witha teacher through which they can extend and refine learners’ thinking and writingskills. An essay opens up a teaching-learning dialogue;
· it enables the tutors to assess the progress, andlearners to express their thoughts clearly and logically.
Teaching writingessays is essential to help write better essays, to delve into a topic more deeply.Focusing on writing becomes a way of focusing on the methods, practices, socialand psychological processes of learning.
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