Phonetics as a branch of linguistics

THEMINISTRY OF HIGHER SOCONDARY SPETIAL EDUCATION OF THE REPUBLIC OF UZBEKISTAN
THEUZBEK STATE WORLD LANGUAGES UNIVERSITY
IENGLISH FACULTY
PHONETICSAS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTIC
Student: RakhmankulovaRegina
Group: 314 «B»
Scientific advisor:Chutpolatov
TASHKENT2010

CONTENTS
I. Introduction
II. Main part
1. Phonetics as a Branchof linguistics
2. Aspects, Types andmethods of phonetics
3. History of phonetics
III. Conclusion
IV. Bibliography

I.Introduction
This coursepaper is dedicated to the theme “Phonetics as a branch of linguistic”. Thestudy of phonetics and phonetics as a branch of linguistic has always been oneof the most interesting, disputable and important problems of theoreticalphonetics of modern English. Phonetics is a field in linguistics thatspecializes in studying single sounds within language. Phonetics concernsitself with how the sounds are produced, how they sound to other listeners andhow the brain perceives the sounds. Like all linguistic fields, phoneticsstudies all languages.
The main aimof the present course paper is to give information about phonetics and its contributionin linguistic.
The main aimof our present research puts forward the following tasks to fulfill:
-Articulatoryphonetics is the study of how speech is made with the mouth, tongue and lungs.
-Acousticphonetics is the study of how speech sounds acoustically, such as speechfrequency and harmonics.
-Auditoryphonetics is the study of how speech is perceived by the brain.
The mainmaterial of given course paper is taken from different books on theoretical andpractical phonetics as such English Phonetics: a Theoretical Phonetics ofModern English (by Abduazizov A.A. T., '1986), a Theoretical Course. SEMINAR(by Sokolova M.A. and others. M., 1991), a Theoretical Course of EnglishPhonetics (by Leontyeva S. F. M., 2002), a Theoretical Course (by Vassilyev V.A. M., 1970), a Pronunciation Theory of English (by Alimardanov R. A. T.,2009).
Thetheoretical value of the present course paper is that the theoretical part ofthe work can be used in delivering lectures on the Theoretical Phonetics ofModern English.
The practicalvalue of the present course paper is that the practical results gained byinvestigating the giving problem may be used as examples or mini-tests inseminars and practical lessons of English Phonetics.
Structurallythe present research work consists of four parts – Introduction, Main part,Conclusion and Bibliography.

II. Main part
1. PHONETICSAS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTICS
Language as“the most important means of human intercourse” exists in the material form ofspeech sounds. It cannot exist without being spoken. Oral speech is primaryprocess of communication by means of language. Written speech is secondary; itpresents what exists in oral speech.[1]
Linguisticsignals first said to be composed of some units, which are divided intosignificant and non — significant ones. The relationship between all the unitsor elements of a language includes different notions starting from sounds,morphemes, words, word combinations and ending up with phrases. The scientificstudy of a language involves an explanation of a mass of notions in terms of arigorously organized and highly patterned system — the link between the units.The whole system of relation of linguistic units forms a system of a language.The character of a system, or the way this system works explain the structureof a language. All languages differ in systems and structures.
Phonetics isconcerned with the human noises by which the thought is actualized or givenaudible shade: the nature of these noises, their combinations, and theirfunctions in relation to the meaning. Phonetics studies the sound system of thelanguage, that is segmental phonemes, word stress, syllabic structure andintonation.
It isprimarily concerned with expression level. However, phonetics is obliged totake the content into consideration too, because at any stage of the analysis,a considerable part of the phonetician's concern is with the effect which theexpression unit he is examining and its different characteristics have onmeaning.
Onlymeaningful sound sequences are regarded as speech, and the science ofphonetics, in principle at least, is concerned only with such sounds producedby a human vocal apparatus as are or may be earners of organized information oflanguage.
Consequently,phonetics is important in the study of language. An understanding it is aprerequisite to any adequate understanding of the structure of working oflanguage. No kind of linguistic study can be made with but consonantconsideration of the material on the expression level.
It followsfrom this, that phonetics a basis brunch or fundamental brunch of linguistics,that is why phonetics claims to be of equal importance with grammar andlexicology. Phonetics has two main divisions: phonology, the Study of soundpatterns of languages, of how a spoken language functions as a «code»,and the study of substance, that carries the code. It shows that there is aclose relationship between the language and thought. In modern linguistics thisrelationship is explained the terms of distinctions: substance and form. By theterm «substance» we mean the material — carries of all the elementsof a language and the term form" we mean linguistic concepts. Human speechis called the «phonic substance» in which linguistic forms aremanifested. The speech may be either oral or written. The term «phonetics»comes — from the Greek word «pho:n» — meaning sound, voice and"-tica" — a science. So, phonetics is a special science which studiesthe phonetic substance and expressions area of the language. The linguistic formand content are described by other brunches of linguistics, namely grammar(morphology and syntax) lexicology (vocabulary, the formation and the meaningof the words) and stylistics (expressive — emotional meaning). Human speech isthe result of a highly complicated series of events. The formation of theconcept takes place at a linguistic level, that is in the brain of the speaker;
This stage maybe called psychological. The message formed within the brain 1s transmittedalong the nervous system to the speech organs. Therefore we may say that thehuman brain controls the behaviour of the articulating organs which effects inproducing a particular pattern of speech sounds. This second stage may becalled physiology cat. The movements of the speech apparatus disturb the airstream thus producing sound waves. Consequently the third stage may be calledphysical or acoustic. Further, any communication requires a listener, as wellas a speaker. So, the last stages are the reception of the sound waves by thelistener's ,hearing physiological apparatus, the transmission of the spokenmessage through the nervous system to the brain and the 1 i n g u i s t i cinterpretation of the information conveyed.[2]
In accordancewith their linguistic function the organs of speech may be grouped as follows: — The repertory or power mechanism furnishes the flow or the air which is thefirst requisite for the production of speech sounds. This mechanism is formedby the lungs, the wind pipe and the bronchi. The energy which is regulated bythe power mechanism. Regulating the force of the air — wave the lungs producevariations in the intensity of speech sounds. Syllabic pulses and dynamicstress are directly related to the behavior of the muscles which activate thismechanism.
From the lungsthrough the wind — pipe the air — stream passes to the upper stages of thevocal tract. First of all it passes to the larynx containing the vocal cords.
The functionof the vocal cords consists in their role as a vibrator set in motion by theair — stream sent by the lungs. At least two actions of the vocal cords as avibrator should be mentioned.
The openingbetween the vocal cords is known as the glottis.
The mostimportant speech function of the vocal cords is their role in the production ofvoice. The effect of voice is achieved when the vocal cords are broughttogether and vibrate when subjected to the pressure of the air — passing fromthe lungs. This vibration is caused by compressed air forcing an opening of theglottis and the following reduced air — pressure permitting the vocal cords tocome together.
The height ofthe speaking voice depends on the frequency of the vibrations.
The morefrequently the vocal cords vibrate the higher the pitch is. From the larynx thestream passes to the pharynx, the mouth and the nasal cavities. The shapes ofthese Cavities modify the note produced in the larynx thus giving rise toparticular speech sounds.…
The followingfour main types of phonetics may be distinguished:
1. Special phoneticsis concerned with the study of phonetics system of a concrete language. Whenthe phonetic system is studied in its static form, at a particular period(synchronically, we speak about descriptive phonetics). When the system is studiedin its historical development (diachronically) we speak about historical, orevolutionary phonetics.
Historicalphonetics uses the philological method of investigation. It studies writtendocuments and compares the spelling and pronunciation of one and the same wordin different periods of the history of the language.[3]
2. GeneralPhonetics which studies the human sound producing possibilities, thefunctioning of his speech mechanism and the ways they are used in all languagesto pronounce speech sounds, syllables, stress and intonation. It is apart ofGeneral Linguistics.
3. DescriptivePhonetics studies the phonetic system of a certain language. For example:English Phonetics, Uzbek Phonetics etc.
4. Historicalor Diachronical Phonetics which studies the changes a sound undergoes in thedevelopment of a language and languages.
5. Comparative- Typological Phonetics. It studies the phonetic features of two or morelanguages of different system such as English, Russian, Uzbek etc. It is partof Comparative — Typological Linguistics.
2. ASPECTS, TYPESAND METHODS OF PHONETICS
Any segment ofa language consist of a sound chain which is specified by some articulatory,acoustic and perceptual features. But not all the phonetic features function todistinguish words, morphemes and phrases and some of them cannot serve this purpose.Thus, it is the function of distinction and also identification which ischaracteristic of all linguistic units. According to their functions phoneticunits — sounds, syllables, stress and intonation can be describedlinguistically and classified to some groups or subgroups. Thus, Phonetics hasfour main aspects: articulatory (physiological), acoustic (physic), perceptual(auditory) and phonological (social, functional, linguistic).
The branch ofphonetics that studies the way in which the air is set in motion, the movementsof the speech organs and coordination of these movements, in-the production ofsingle sounds and trains of sounds is called articulatory phonetics.[4]
Acousticphonetics studies the way in which the air vibrates between the speaker's mouthand the listener's ear. until recently, articulatory phonetics has been thedominating branch, and most descriptive work has been done in articulatoryterms.
The branch ofphonetics investigating the hearing process is known as auditory phonetics Itsinterests lie more in the sensation of hearing, which is brain activity, thanin the physiological working of the ear or the nervous activity between the earand the brain. The means by which we discriminate sounds — quality, sensationof pitch, " loudness and length", are relevant here. The noises wehear may be classified in terms of three features: continuity, resonance andtimber.
As for thephonological aspect it differs from all the above mentioned three aspects. Thetheoretical study which sets up to account all the phonetic distinction of alanguage is called phonology. Some linguists prefer the terms phonemics andphonematics. Phonology is one of the aspects of studying. Phonetics data: otherwiseit is purely linguistic and social aspect of studying phonetics.
Phonetics inthe wider sense includes phonology as distinct from morphology, syntax andstylistics. But in narrow sense the term phonetics is observed in our country.Phonetics and phonology have two levels of investigation: segmental andsuprasegmental. Segmental phonology studies phonemes realised in various speechsounds. Suprasegmental phonology studies the distinctive features realised insyllables, stress and intonation. It is convenient to use the term phonemicsfor segmental phonology a sit refers to the term phoneme itself. As tosuprasegmental phonology the term prosodics may be used. Thus, phonology may bedivided into phonemics and prosodics. The fundamental concept of phonemics isthe phoneme which is the smallest unit of a language system.[5]
The oldest,simplest and most readily available method is the method of direct observation.This method consists in observing the movements and positions of one's own orother people's organs of speech in pronouncing various speech sounds, as wellas in analyzing one's own kinesthetic sensations during the articulation ofspeech sound in comparing them with auditory impressions.
Objectivemethods involve the use of various instrumental techniques (paleography,laryngoscopy, photography, cinematography, X-ray photography and cinematographyand electromyography). This type of investigation together with direct observationis widely used in experimental phonetics. The objective methods and thesubjective ones are complementary and not opposite to one another. Nowadays wemay use the up-to-date complex set to fix the articulatory parameters of speech- so called articulograph.
The methods ofinvestigation used in phonetics vary, but there are three principal methods:(1) the direct observation method; (2) the linguistic method; (3) theexperimental method.
1. The directobservation method comprises three important modes of phonetic analysis: byear, by sight and by muscular sensation. Investigation by means of this methodcan be effective only if the persons employing it have been specially trainedto observe the minutest movements of their own and other people’s speechorgans, and to distinguish the slightest variations in sound quality. Everyphonetician undergoes a special training, in the course of which his phoneticear, and also his muscular sensation, are developed. By a “phonetic ear” ismeant the capability to distinguish the exact quality of sounds pronounced invarious sound sequences or in isolation, whether is one’s mother tongue or in aforeign language.
The muscularsensation is developed by constant and regular practice in articulating varioussounds. A trained phonetician should be able to pronounce sounds of a givenquality (e.g. an open back unrounded vowel, a trilled [r], a fronted [k],etc.), as well as to recognize, by means of means of his highly developedmuscular sensation the exact nature of the articulation of any speech soundthat he hears.
2. The aim ofthe linguistic method of investigation of any concrete phonetic phenomena, suchas sound, stress, intonation or any other feature, is to determine in what wayall of these phonetic features are used in a language to convey a certainmeaning. An accurate phonetic analysis (made either by ear or by means of someinstruments or apparatus) is of no use whatever unless it serves as a clue thatwill help to interpret the linguistic function of a phonetic phenomenon.
The linguisticmethod, therefore, is of paramount importance.
3. Theexperimental method is based, as a rule, upon the use of special apparatus orinstruments, such as the laryngoscope, the artificial palate, the kymograph,the magnetic tape recorder, the oscillograph, the intonograph.
Speciallaboratory equipment, such as kymograph, spectrograph, oscillograph andintonograph help to obtain the necessary data about prosodic properties ofspeech sounds.[6]
3. HISTORY OFPHONETICS
The termphonics during the 19th century and into the 1970s was used as a synonym ofphonetics. The use of the term in reference to the method of teaching is datedto 1901 by the OED.
Phonics derivesfrom the Roman text The Doctrine of Littera, dubious – discuss which statesthat a letter (littera) consists of a sound (potestas), a written symbol(figura) and a name (nomen). This relation between word sound and form is thebackbone of traditional phonics.[7]
Phonetics was studied as early as 2500 B.C. in ancient India, with Pāṇini's account of the placeand manner of articulation of consonants in his 5th century BC treatise onSanskrit. The major Indic alphabets today order their consonants according to Pāṇini's classification.
The Ancient Greeks are credited as the first to base a writing system ona phonetic alphabet.
Modern phonetics began with Alexander Melville Bell, whose Visible Speech(1867) introduced a system of precise notation for writing down speech sounds.
History of English pronunciation:
Englishconsonants have been remarkably stable over time, and have undergone fewchanges in the last 1500 years. On the other hand, English vowels have beenquite unstable. Not surprisingly, then, the main differences between moderndialects almost always involve vowels.[8]
Around thelate 14th century, English began to undergo the Great Vowel Shift, in which thehigh long vowels [i:] and [u:] in words like price and mouth becamediphthongized, first to [əɪ] and [əʊ] (where they remain todayin some environments in some accents such as Canadian English) and later totheir modern values [aɪ] and [aʊ]. This is not unique toEnglish, as this also happened in Dutch (first shift only) and German (bothshifts).
The other longvowels became higher:
[e:] became[i:] (for example meet),
[a:] became[e:] (later diphthongized to [eɪ], for example name),
[o:] became[u:] (for example goose), and
[ɔ:] become [o:] (later diphthongized to[oʊ], for example bone).
Laterdevelopments complicate the picture: whereas in Geoffrey Chaucer's time food,good, and blood all had the vowel [o] and in William Shakespeare's time theyall had the vowel [u], in modern pronunciation good has shortened its vowel to[ʊ] and blood has shortened and loweredits vowel to [ʌ] in most accents. In Shakespeare'sday (late 16th-early 17th century), many rhymes were possible that no longerhold today. For example, in his play The Taming of the Shrew, shrew rhymed withwoe æ-tensing is aphenomenon found in many varieties of American English by which the vowel /æ/has a longer, higher, and usually diphthongal pronunciation in someenvironments, usually to something like [eə]. Some American accents, forexample that of New York City, Philadelphia, or Baltimore make a marginalphonemic distinction between /æ/ and /eə/ although the two occurlargely in mutually exclusive environments.
The bad-ladsplit refers to the situation in some varieties of southern British English andAustralian English, where a long phoneme /æ/ in words like bad contrastswith a short /æ/ in words like lad.
The cot-caughtmerger is a sound change by which the vowel of words like caught, talk, andtall (/ɔ/), is pronounced the same as thevowel of words like cot, rock, and doll (/ɒ/ in New England /ɑ:/ elsewhere). This merger iswidespread in North American English, being found in approximately 40% ofAmerican speakers and virtually all Canadian speakers.
Thefather-bother merger is the pronunciation of the short O /ɒ/ in words such as«bother» identically to the broad A /ɑ:/ of words such as«father», nearly universal in all of the United States and Canadasave New England and the Maritime provinces; many American dictionaries use thesame symbol for these vowels in pronunciation guides.[9]

III.CONCLUSION
As we havealready above mentioned, language as “the most important means of humanintercourse” exists in the material form of speech sounds. It cannot existwithout being spoken.
Linguistic iscomposed of some units, which are divided into significant and non — significant ones. The whole system of relation of linguistic units forms asystem of a language. Languages differ in systems and structures.
Phonetics isconcerned with the human noises. Phonetics studies the sound system of thelanguage that is segmental phonemes, word stress, syllabic structure andintonation.
However,phonetics is obliged to take the content into consideration. It is primarilyconcerned with expression level.
As we know,only meaningful sound sequences are regarded as speech.
Phonetics hastwo main divisions: phonology, the Study of sound patterns of languages, of howa spoken language functions as a «code», and the study of substance,that carries the code.
Human speechis the result of a highly complicated series of events. The formation of theconcept takes place at a linguistic level, that is in the brain of the speaker.This stage may be called psychological. Human brain controls the behaviour ofthe articulating organs which effects in producing a particular pattern ofspeech sounds. This second stage may be called physiology cat. The movements ofthe speech apparatus disturb the air stream thus producing sound waves.Consequently the third stage may be called physical or acoustic. The laststages are the reception of the sound waves by the listener's, hearingphysiological apparatus, the transmission of the spoken message.
In accordancewith their linguistic function the organs of speech may be grouped.
The followingfour main types of phonetics may be distinguished:
1. Special phonetics;
2. GeneralPhonetics.
3. DescriptivePhonetics.
4. Historicalor Diachronical Phonetics.
5. Comparative- Typological Phonetics.
According totheir functions phonetic units — sounds, syllables, stress and intonation canbe described linguistically and classified to some groups or subgroups.
Phonetics inthe wider sense includes phonology as distinct from morphology, syntax andstylistics.
The oldest,simplest and most readily available method is the method of direct observation.Objective methods involve the use of various instrumental techniques. Themethods of investigation used in phonetics vary, but there are three principalmethods: (1) the direct observation method; (2) the linguistic method; (3) theexperimental method.
The termphonics during the 19th century and into the 1970s was used as a synonym ofphonetics. The use of the term in reference to the method of teaching is datedto 1901 by the OED.
Phonetics wasstudied as early as 2500 B.C. in ancient India, with Pāṇini's account of the placeand manner of articulation of consonants in his 5th century BC treatise onSanskrit.
The AncientGreeks are credited as the first to base a writing system on a phoneticalphabet. Modern phonetics began with Alexander Melville Bell, whose VisibleSpeech (1867) introduced a system of precise notation for writing down speechsounds.
Englishconsonants have been remarkably stable over time, and have undergone fewchanges in the last 1500 years.
Around thelate 14th century, English began to undergo the Great Vowel Shift.
Laterdevelopments complicate the picture: Geoffrey Chaucer and William Shakespeareadded theirs contribution in pronunciation.
Thus, we candraw a conclusion. The course paper is dedicated to the theme Phonetics as abranch of linguistic. Today, this theme is one of the most interesting,disputable and important problems of theoretical phonetics of modern English.

IV.BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.  Abduazimov A. A. T., 2006“Theoretical Course”;
2.  Alimardanov R. A. T., 2009“Pronunciation Theory of English”;
3.  Crystal, David Camb., 1997 “English as a GlobalLanguage”;
4.  Leontyeva S. F. M., 2002 “TheoreticalCourse of English Phonetics”;
5.  Sokolova M. A. M., 1994“Theoretical Phonetics of English”;
6.  Vasslyev V. A. M., 1970“Theoretical Course”.
7.  www.experiencefestival.com;
8.  en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language;
9.  studentguide.ru;
10.   http://www.durov.com.