Contents
Introduction
1. The theoretical aspect of concept
1.1 Concept as the basicterm of the cognitive linguistics
1.2 The notion of theatre
2.THEATRE concept in thesemantic space of W.S.Maugham’s “Theatre”
2.1 Theatre as it isviewed by W.S.Maugham
2.2 Theatre as people forW.S.Maugham’s
2.3 The place of tropes inW.S.Maugham’s presentation of the THEATRE concept
Conclusions
Bibliography
Introduction
The cognitivelinguistics is the foundation for the new accents in the comprehension oflanguage. These accents give some opportunities for the study of theinteraction between human mind and cognitive processes. The cognitivelinguistics is the separate direction of the linguistics that is characterizedby the language as the general cognitive mechanism and cognitive instrumentlocated in the center of the science. The central problem of the cognitivelinguistics is represented by the construction of the model of the languagecommunication as the base for the exchange of knowledge [24; 32]
The cognitivelinguistics is formed on the base of several origins. For instance, cognitivescience or cognitology, cognitive psychology, linguistic semantics are thefoundation for the cognitive linguistics. Besides, the cognitivism studies thehuman mind, thoughts and mental processes and states connected with them. Theproblematic area of the modern cognitive linguistic is rather wide. [24; 35]
We decidedthat it would be interesting to investigate the basic notion of cognitivelinguistics on the basis of W.S. Maugham’snovel “Theatre“.
W.S. Maugham’s early reputation was based on hiscomedies of manners for the stage. Among the best remembered of hiswitty, cynical and frankly commercial plays are “The Circle” (1921), “OurBetters” (1923), and “The Constant Wife” (1926). W.S. Maugham usually wrote in a detached, ironic style, yet he oftenshowed sympathy for his characters. His semiautobiographical novel “Of HumanBondage” (1915) established his position as a serious writer. “Cakes and Ale”(1930) is generally ranked next among Maugham’s novels. The author based hisnovel “The Moon and Sixpence” (1919) on the life of the painter Paul Gauguin.Maugham’s “Collected Short Stories” was published in four volumes in 1977 and1978. [38]
He published several novels, including “TheHero” (1901), “Mrs Craddock” (1902), and “The Merry-Go-Round” (1904). He also continuedto write plays and A Man of Honours was produced in 1903 by the Stage Society.Maugham moved to Paris and lived a bohemian life in the company of painters andwriters, a period of his life he wasto recall in “The Moon and Sixpence” (1919). The author’s later life wasenlivened by the making of filmversions of some of his excellent short stories “Quartet” (1948), “Trio”(1950), and “Encore” (1951), introduced by the author in person. He was made aCompanion of Honour in 1954, and in 1962 hepublished “Looking Back”, a volume of memoirs which contained a vindictive and pointless attack on his deceased ex-wife, and which lost him many friends.“The Moon and Sixpence” (1919), an exploration of the creative genius, based on the life of Paul Gauguin,confirmed his reputation as anovelist, and headed the long list of works inspired by the author’stravels in the South Seas.[38]
All his best novels are written about artists: in “OfHuman Bondage” the writer wrote about his own life, in “The Moon and Sixpence” (1919)he tells readersthe story of the French Painter Paul Gaugin as it would be if the painter werean Englishman, Cakes and Ale (1930) is based on some facts from Th.Hardy’s life, the main character of “Theatre” (1938) is aLondon actress. Maugham’s positionas a successful playwright was being consolidated at the same time.
Generally the cognitive linguistics is the modern branch of linguisticsappeared in 1970s of the 20th century. The cognitive linguistics ischaracterized by the following periods of the scientific search: 1)cognitivism; 2) connectivism.
These periodsplay a great role for the regulation of the models of representation.
Cognition isthe main term of the cognitive linguistics that embraces knowledge and thoughtsin their linguistic realization. That is why cognition and cognitivism areconnected with linguistics. The cognitive linguistics is usually characterizedas the new scientific paradigm. The main purpose of the cognitive linguisticsis to understand the processes of assimilation, categorization, classificationand interpretation of the world. Besides the cognitive linguistics studies theprocess of the accumulation of knowledge and systems that provide differenttypes of the activity concerning the information. [24; 74]
The aim ofthe studyis to learn concept as it is introduced in “Theatre” by W.S.Maugham.
Theadditional tasks of the study include:
1) learning ofthe concept as the basic term of the cognitive linguistics;
2)generalization of the notion of theatre;
3) learning ofthe THEATRE in the semantic space of W.S.Maugham’s “Theatre”.
The objectof the study is based on the THEATRE as it is introduced in “Theatre” by W.S.Maugham.
The subjectof the study includes the text of the novel “Theatre” by W.S.Maugham.
The study ofconcept is rather topical because this concept is very wide-spread. In generalthe concept was studied by V.B. Kasevich (Language and Cognitive activity, M.,1989), V.A. Maslova (Introduction to Cognitive linguistics, M., 2007),. O.S. Kubryakova(Parts of speech from the cognitive point of view, M., 1997), etc. The modernapproach to the study of the language is rather complex. It may be characterizedas the interaction between the results of such sciences as linguistics,philosophy, psychology, culturology, etc.
The study ischaracterized by the following structure: introduction, two chapters,conclusions and list of literary sources.
Chapter I.The theoretical aspect of concept
1.1 Conceptas the basic term of the cognitive linguistics
First of allwe will consider the theoretical aspect of concept.
Conceptualizationis the process of the creation and construction of concept in the humanrecognition. It is also the process of thought concerning the new informationthat causes the creation of concept [13; 67].
The cognitiveactivity of the human is the skill to orient in the world. This activity alsocombines the need to distinguish objects. So concepts appear in order toprovide this operation. The formation of concepts is based on the recognitionof the world and formation of the images about it.
The study ofconcept is the main task of the cognitive linguistics. Every attempt to realizethe nature of concept causes the realization of the fact of presence ofclosely-related concepts and terms. Concept is the intellectual category thatmay not be recognized visually. This fact causes the presence of the wide areafor the interpretation of concept. Every language mark represents concept inthe language, but it does not represent concept in a whole. With the assistanceof its meaning the language mark represents several conceptual features thatare relevant for the transmission of the information. If we need to expressconcept in a whole it is necessary to apply different linguistic means and thewhole nominative field of concept. So both concept and its compounds may be verbalizedand non-verbalized. It is difficult to define concepts that are non-verbalized.
The nativespeaker is the origin of widening of some conceptual systems. Concepts are theessence of the mental reality. Every concept combines knowledge about the worldand unreal imaginations. The system of concepts creates the world picture thatreflects the human comprehension of the reality and its peculiar conceptualpicture. The human understands the world on the base of the mentionedconceptual picture.
The word isthe main mean of the access to the conceptual knowledge. Due to the mentionedaccess we have an ability to add other conceptual features to the intellectualactivity even in case if these features are not named by this word. Thelinguistic nomination is the key mean for the use of concept in theintellectual activity. The word brings concept into our recognition, makes itactive and causes the process of thought.
Words can be classed according to different principles: morphological(parts of speech), semantic (synonyms, antonyms, thematic), stylistic and othertypes of classification. In each of these classifications lexical or/andgrammatical meanings assume different manifestations. In a morphologicalclassification words are grouped according to their grammatical meanings; in asemantic classification, according to their logical (referential) meanings, ina stylistic classification, according to their stylistic meaning.
Lexical meanings are closely related to concepts. They are sometimesidentified with concepts. But concept is a purely logical category, whereasmeaning is a linguistic one. In linguistics it is necessary to view meaning asthe representation of a concept through one of its properties. Concept, as isknown, is versatile; it is characterized by a number of properties. Meaningtakes one of these properties and makes it represent the concept as a whole.Therefore meaning in reference to concept becomes, as it were, a kind ofmetonymy. This statement is significant inasmuch as it will further explain thestylistic function of certain meanings. The same concept can be represented ina number of linguistic manifestations (meanings) but, paradoxal though it maysound, each manifestation causes a slight (and sometimes considerable) modificationof the concept, in other words, discloses latent or unknown properties of theconcept [7; 13].
A word can be defined as a unit of language functioning within thesentence or within a part of it which by its sound or graphical form expressesa concrete or abstract notion or a grammatical notion through one of itsmeanings and which is capable of enriching its semantic structure by acquiringnew meanings and losing old ones.
It is not easy to explain the semantic structure of a word. Onlylexicographers know how difficult it is. This difficulty is mainly caused bythe very nature of the word. It may in some circumstances reveal such overtonesof meaning as are not elements of the code [7; 25].
The following analogy will not come amiss. There are in nature soundsthat we do not hear, there is light that we do not see, and heat that we do notfeel. Special apparatus is necessary to detect these phenomena. Almost the samecan be said about almost every language sign: sound, morpheme, word, sentence,stylistic device. These signs can bring to life subtleties of meaning which arepassed unnoticed by the untrained mind and which can be detected only throughthe employment of a special method, called supralinear analysis. This method requires some faith inintuition.
There is a difference in the treatment of the potentialities of languagesigns in grammar, phonetics and lexicology, on the one hand, and in stylistics,on the other. In stylistics we take it for granted that a word has an almostunlimited potentiality of acquiring new meanings, whereas in lexicology thispotentiality is restricted to semantic and grammatical acceptability. In stylistics the intuitive, and therefore toa very great extent subjective, perception of meaning in words is raised to thelevel of topicality. The issue touched upon here is the well-known contradistinctionbetween the scientific (abstract), intellectually precise perception of worldphenomena and the sensory, intuitive, vague and uncertain impressions of anartistic perception of these same phenomena.
The lexical meaning of the wordwhich may be described as the component of meaning proper to the word as a linguistic unit; i.e.recurrent in all the forms of this word. The difference between the lexical and the grammatical components ofmeaning is not to be sought in the difference of the concepts underlying thetwo types of meaning, but rather in the way they arc conveyed. The concept ofplurality, e.g., may be expressed by the lexical meaning of the world plurality;it may also be expressed in the forms of various words irrespective oftheir lexical meaning, e.g. boys, girls, joys, etc. The concept of relation may be expressed by the lexical meaning of the word.
Besidesconcept are the idea that combines the abstract, concrete-associative andemotional-estimate features and history of the conception.Concept isthe personal interpretation of the objective meaning and conception as theminimum of the meaning. Concept is also the abstract scientific conceptionexpressed by its forms of the meaning. These forms are: image, conception andsymbol.
The mostwide-spread definition of concept is following: concept is the discrete mentalcreation that is the basic unit of the intellectual code of the human. This codeis characterized by the internal structure. It is a result of the cognitiveactivity of the human and society and brings the complex and encyclopedicinformation about the subject and phenomenon and the social attitude to thisphenomenon.
Concepts maybe classified according to the type of knowledge and reflection of realitybecause these types are the foundation of the method of the assignment anddescription of concept.
The mostwide-spread features of concept are following:
1) concept isthe minimum unit of the human experience in the ideal imagination that isverbalized with the assistance of the word;
2) concept ischaracterized by the field structure;
3) concept isthe main unit of processing, keeping and transmission of knowledge;
4) concept hasthe mobile borders and concrete functions;
5) concept issocial, its associative field causes its pragmatics;
6) concept isthe main cell of culture [11; 45].
So conceptsrepresent the world in the human recognition creating the conceptual system.Besides, the marks of the human language codify the content of this system inthe world. Concepts appear in the human recognition as a result of theactivity, interpretation of the world and socialization. Every concept includesthe generalized content of different forms of expression in the naturallanguage and in spheres that are based on the language and their presence isimpossible without language. Concepts as the results of the intellectualactivity should be verbalized. The language connects the people into the nationwith the assistance of concepts.
Imagination isthe type of concept that is the generalized sensual-visual image of the subjector phenomenon.
Scheme is thetype of concept represented by some generalized graphical or contour scheme. Itis the hyperonym with the weak image. Conception is the type of concept thatreflects the most general and considerable features of the subject orphenomenon. It is the result of the rational reflection and interpretation.Frame is the type of concept that is interpreted and has many compounds. It isthe volumetric imagination and totality of standard knowledge about the subjector phenomenon. Scenario is the sequence of several episodes in time. Geshtaltis the complex and integral functional structure of thought that organizes theseparate phenomenons of the human recognition.
Concepts canbe also divided into group and individual, abstract and concrete. Theseclassifications are topical for the linguistic-cognitive study because these typesof concept need different methods of analysis and description. Some conceptsare typical for limited quantity of people. They are group concepts. They arenot applied by the nation in a whole. They also may be unrelevant incommunicative side. At present concept is the synonym of the conception andcontent.
The conceptualsphere is the branch of knowledge that includes concepts as its units. Besidesthe conceptual sphere is the totality of concepts created by the nation. It isalso the informational base of thought. There are different types of theconceptual sphere. They are: emotional, educational, textual, etc.
Besides,concept is the base of the linguistic picture of the world, because the humanimaginations about the world are the result of the interaction between peopleand world. If the people got some experience they transform it into concepts.As a result the conceptual system is created in this case. The picture of theworld is the reality of the human recognition. And the language is the base ofthe cognitive process. The picture of the world is reflected in the content ofthe language. The linguistic picture of the world causes the communicative behavior,interpretation of the external world and internal world of the person.
Concept is theunit of the conceptual sphere or, in other words, totality of the units of thenational thought. It includes all mental features of some phenomenon that arereflected during some period of the development of the nation. Concept providesthe intelligent interpretation of reality. The conceptual sphere is thetotality of the national concepts and informational base of the intellect. Thecognitive linguistics represents the study concerning different nationalconceptual spheres. So we have an ability to define the similar phenomenon ofdifferent nations.
There are somepeculiarities of the description of concept. For instance:
1) traditionallinguistic and experimental methods are applied in case of the description ofconcept;
2) during thecreation of the model of concept the cognitive features instead of the separatemeans are determined;
3) descriptionof the image, informational content and interpretative field is applied in caseof the analysis of the structure of concept;
4) the contentof concept is described as the totality of the cognitive features organizedaccording to the principle of the nucleus to the near, far and last periphery.
Generally thestructure and dissimilar features of concept are studied by the cognitivelinguistics. Image, informational content and interpretative field are thestructural parts of concept.
Images may beindividual. But if the sensual image is group this image may be studied as thefact of the conceptual sphere. The sensual image is created be the organs sense(the perceptive image) and by the image features formed with the assistance ofthe metaphorical interpretation of some subject of phenomenon. This image isnamed metaphorical or cognitive. The perceptive image includes visual, tactual,gustatory and other images [11; 49].
Theinformational content includes the minimum of cognitive features that determinethe main considerable features of the conceptual subject or phenomenon. Thesefeatures are the most important for the subject and it’s applied. They createthe characteristics of the most considerable differential features, obligatorycompounds, main function and sex.
Theinterpretative field includes the cognitive features that interpret the maininformational content of concept. It also includes the features that have somederivative knowledge or estimate it. The interpretative field is dissimilar.There are several zones in it. These zones are characterized by the internalcontent and combine the cognitive features that have the similar content. It ispossible to define the estimate and encyclopedic zone. Besides, the encyclopedicfeatures are divided into utilitarian, regulative, social-cultural andparemiological zones.
The structureof concept may be described only after the definition and description of itscontent. So firstly it is necessary to define the compounds that create the cognitivefeatures of concept.
The proportionbetween the structural components of concept and its field organization are notsymmetrical. Such basic compounds of concept as image, informational contentand interpretative field are spread on different field zones of concept. Thereis no exact consolidation of the structural components according to every fieldzone.
Image does notalways come into the nucleus of concept, though the concrete image comes intothe nucleus of concept in case of the individual recognition. In this case itcodifies concept for the native speaker.
It isnecessary to distinguish the content and structure of concept in the process ofthe practical description of concept. The content of concept is created withthe assistance of the cognitive features. These features reflect the featuresof the conceptualized subject or phenomenon. The content is usually describedas the totality of these features. It is characterized by the internalorganization. The mentioned organization is based on the field principle –nucleus, near, far and last periphery.
The structureof concept includes the basic structural components that create concept and arecharacterized by the different nature. These structural components arefollowing: sensual image, informational content and interpretative field. Thestructure of concept is usually described as the calculation of the cognitivefeatures that are related to each of these structural components of concept.
Besides, thenominative field of concept is based on the conceptual or, in other words,semantic fields. Words may be classified according to the concepts underlyingtheir meaning. This classification is closely connected with the theory ofconceptual or semantic fields. By the term “semantic fields” we understand closely knit sectors of vocabulary eachcharacterized by a common concept. For example, the words blue, red,yellow, black, etc. may be described asmaking up the semantic field of colors,the words mother, father, brother, cousin, etc. – as members ofthe semantic field of kinship terms, the words joy, happiness, gaiety,enjoyment, etc. as – belonging to the field of pleasurable emotions, etc.[10; 61].
Semantic dependence of the word on the structure ofthe field may be also illustrated by comparing-members of analogous conceptual fields indifferent languages. Comparing, for example, kinship terms in Russian and inEnglish we observe that the meaning of the English term mother-in-law is different from either the Russian as theEnglish term covers the whole area which in Russian is divided betweentwo words.
The theory of semantic field is severely criticizedby the linguists mainly on philosophical grounds since some of the proponents of thesemantic field theory hold the idealistic view that, language is a kind of self-contained entity standing between man and theworld of reality.
Words making up such semantic fields may belong to different parts ofspeech. For example, in the semantic field of space we find nouns: expanse,extent, surface, etc.; verbs: extend, spread, span; adjectives: spacious,roomy, vast, broad, etc.
There may be comparatively small lexical groups of words belonging to thesame part of speech and linked by a common concept. The words bread, cheese,milk, meat, etc. make up a group with the concept of food as the commondenominator of meaning. Such smaller lexical groups consisting of words of thesame part of speech are usually termed lexico-semantic groups. It is observedthat the criterion for joining words together into semantic fields andlexico-semantic groups is the identity of one of the components of theirmeaning found in all the lexical units making up these lexical groups. Any ofthe semantic components may be chosen to represent the group. For example, theword saleswoman may be analyzed into the semantic components “human”, “female”,“professional”.Consequently the word saleswoman may be includedinto a lexico-semantic group under the heading of human together with the wordsman, woman, boy, girl, etc. and under the heading female with (he words girl,wife, woman and also together with the words teacher, pilot, butcher, etc., asprofessionals [18; 29].
It should also be pointed out (hat different meanings of polysemanticwords make it possible to refer the same word to different lexico-semanticgroups. Thus, e.g. make in the meaning of “construct” is naturally a member ofthe same lexico-semantic group as the verbs produce, manufacture, etc., whereasin the meaning of compel it-is regarded as a member of a differentlexico-semantic group made up by the verbs force, induce, etc.
The nominativefield of concept is the totality of all linguistic means that objectificateconcept during some period of social development. The nominative field is characterizedby the complex structure and includes the lexico-semantic group,lexico-semantic field, lexico-phraseological field, synonymic line, associativefield, etc. Some concepts are characterized by the presence of the widenominative field which may be found easily. Other concepts are characterized bythe limited nominative field which has not synonymic lines and hyperhyponymiccharacter. There are also concepts that have only subjective and occasionalnominations without the name of concept.
The nominativefield includes the following components:
1) directnominations of concept (the key word-represent and its methodical synonyms);
2) derivativenominations;
3) one-rootwords, units of different parts of language connected with the main lexicalmeans of the verbalization of concept;
4) similar;
5) contextualsynonyms;
6) occasionalindividual nominations;
7) stable wordcombinations that are synonyms of the key word;
8)phraseological units that include the name of concept;
9) proverbs,aphorisms, etc.;
10)metaphorical nominations;
11) stablecomparisons that include the key word;
12) free wordcombinations that include features for the characteristics of concept;
13)associative field as a result of the experiment on the word-stimulus that namesconcept;
14) subjectiveword definitions proposed for the interpretation of concept;
15) lexicalinterpretation of language units that objectificate concept;
16) articlesof the encyclopedia or reference book (informational-explicative texts);
17) thematictexts that represent the content of concept;
18)sociopolitical texts and belles-lettres that represent the content of concept;
19) totalityof the texts in case of need in explication or discussion of the content ofcomplex, abstract or individual concepts) [15; 29].
It isnecessary to notice that the proportion between the word and concept is themain theoretical problem of the cognitive linguistics.
Meaning is theunit of semantic area of language. So it is the element of the totality andsystem of meanings of the concrete language. Meaning includes a small quantityof semantic features that are famous in some social environment. These featuresare connected with the functioning of the sound cover. The semantics of theword provides the mutual comprehension in the process of communication.
Thedescription of the units of the nominative field gives an ability to image thecontent of concept in the form in which it is reflected and fixed in thelanguage. It also gives an ability to reconstruct and describe only a part ofconcept. This part includes the most relevant features. If the nominative fieldof concept is characterized by the larger volume and a greater quantity ofunits the results of the reconstruction and the description of the content andstructure of concept are better.
Theconstruction of the nominative field of concept is the definition anddescription of the totality of linguistic means that represent concept and itsseparate features. It is possible to determine only the direct nominations (keywords and its synonyms). This method gives an ability to create the nucleus ofthe nominative field. Besides it is possible not to make such limitations anddetermine the nominative field in a whole. The key word is the lexical unitthat is characterized by the nominative function concerning concept.
The nucleus ofthe nominative field is usually determined by the following ways:
1) with theassistance of the synonymic widening of the key word (it is necessary to usedictionaries in this case);
2) with theassistance of the analysis of the contexts that are characterized by thenomination of concept we are interested in.
After ourresearch we can make conclusion that concept is a rather compound linguisticphenomenon.
1.2 Thenotion of theatre
We haveconsidered the theoretical aspect of concept, let us found out what the THEATREconcept is.
Theatre is abranch of the performing arts. While any performance may be considered theatre,as a performing art, it focuses almost exclusively on live performers creatinga self-contained drama. A performance qualifies as dramatic by creating arepresentational illusion. By this broad definition, theatre has existed sincethe dawn of man, as a result of the human tendency for storytelling. Since itsinception, theatre has come to take on many forms, utilizing speech, gesture,music, dance, and spectacle, combining the other performing arts, often as wellas the visual arts, into a single artistic form. The word derives from theAncient Greek theatre meaning “the seeing place”. [39]
The word“theatre” means a “place for seeing». The two most common types of theatreplays are comedy and tragedy, symbolized by the theatre masks. The firstrecorded theatrical event was a performance of the sacred plays of the myth ofOsiris and Isis in 2500 BC in Egypt. This story of the god Osiris was performedannually at festivals throughout the civilization, marking the beginning of along relationship between theatre and religion.
The ancientGreeks began formalizing theatre as an art, developing strict definitions oftragedy and comedy as well as other forms, including satyr plays. Like thereligious plays of ancient Egypt, Greek plays made use of mythologicalcharacters. The Greeks also developed the concepts of dramatic criticism,acting as a career, and theatre architecture. In the modern world these workshave been adapted and interpreted in thousands of different ways in order toserve the needs of the time. Examples are offered by Antigone, used in 1944 byAnouilh to make a statement about the Nazi occupation of France, and by Brechtin 1948, likening Creon to Hitler and Thebes to defeated Germany. [39]
Westerntheatre continued to develop under the Roman Empire, in medieval England, andcontinued to thrive, taking on many alternate forms in Spain, Italy, France,and Russia in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. The general trend over thecenturies was away from the poetic drama of the Greeks and the Renaissance andtoward a more realistic style, especially following the Industrial Revolution.A uniquely North American theatre developed with the colonization of the newworld.
The history ofEastern theatre is traced back to 1000 BC with the Sanskrit drama of ancientIndian theatre. Chinese theatre also dates back to around the same time.Japanese forms of Kabuki, Noh, and Kyogen date back to the 17th century AD.Other Eastern forms were developed throughout China, Korea, and Southeast Asia.
The mostpopular forms of theatre in the medieval Islamic world were puppet theatre (whichincluded hand puppets, shadow plays and marionette productions) and livepassion plays known as ta’ziya, where actors re-enact episodes from Muslimhistory.
The most recognizablefigures in theatre are the directors, playwrights, and actors, but theatre is ahighly collaborative endeavor. Plays are usually produced by a production teamthat commonly includes a scenic or set designer, lighting designer, costumedesigner, sound designer, stage manager, props mistress or master andproduction manager. Depending on the production, this team may also include adramaturge, video designer or fight director. The artistic staff is assisted bytechnical theatre personnel who handle creation and execution of theproduction.
Drama (literallytranslated as action, from a verbal root meaning ‘To do”) is the branch oftheatre in which speech, either from written text (plays), or improvised isparamount. And the companion word drama is also Greek, dran meaning to do.Classical forms of drama, including Greek and Roman drama, classic Englishdrama including William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe and French dramaincluding Moliere is still performed today.
Music and theatrehave always had a close relationship. Musical theatre is a form of theatrecombining music, songs, dance routines, and spoken dialogue. Modern musicaltheatre emerged from the variety, vaudeville, and music hall genres of the late19th and early 20th century. Musical theatre generally includes a combinationof dialogue, song and dance, and spectacle. Contemporary Broadway musicalsoften include lavish costumes and sets supported by million dollar budgets.
Theatreproductions that use humor as a vehicle to tell a story qualify as comedies.This may include a modern farce such as “Boeing Boeing” or a classical playsuch as “As You Like It”. Theatre expressing bleak, controversial or taboosubject matter in a deliberately humorous way is referred to as black comedy.
2. TheTHEATRE concept in the semantic space of W.S.Maugham’s “Theatre”
2.1 Theatreas it is viewed by W.S.Maugham
We have madesome research of notion of concept and the THEATRE concept in particular, andnow we can consider the THEATRE concept in the W. S. Maugham’s novel «Theatre». The analysis of 20fragments showed that the THEATRE concept is widely represented in the novel.
In thefollowing fragment we can see an author's particular relation to the theatre: “That’sbecause the public isn’t really interested in the theatre. In the great days ofthe English stage people didn’t go to see the plays, they went to see theplayers. It didn’t matter what Kemble and Mrs. Siddons acted. The public wentto see them. And even now, though I don’t deny that if the play’s wrong you’redished, I do contend that if the play’s right, it’s the actors the public go tosee, not the play” [27; 17].
On an exampleof Julia we can see what things are important for actors and help to staypopular: “She had her clothes made in Paris, both for the stage and forprivate life, and the dressmakers said that no one brought them more orders.She had a lovely figure, everyone admitted that; she was fairly tall for awoman, and she had long legs. It was а pity she had never had a chance ofplaying Rosalind, she would have looked all right in boy’s clothes, of courseit was too late now, but perhaps it was just as well she hadn’t risked it.Though you would have thought, with her brilliance, her roguishness, her senseof comedy she would have been perfect. The critics hadn’t really liked herBeatrice. It was that damned blank verse. Her voice, her rather low rich voice,with that effective hoarseness, which wrung your heart in an emotional passageor gave so much humor to a comedy line, seemed to sound all wrong when shespoke it. And then her articulation; it was so distinct that, without raisingher voice, she could make you hear her every word in the last row of thegallery; they said it made verse sound like prose. The fact was, she supposed,that she was much too-modern” [27; 19].
In this casethe events represented by the author introduce the mentioned concept: “Shefelt like a high-born damsel, with all the tradition of a great and ancientfamily to keep up; her purity was a pearl of great price; she also felt thatshe was making a wonderfully good impression: of course he was I a greatgentleman, and “damn it all” it behaved her to be a great lady. She was sopleased with her performance that when she had got into her room and somewhatnoisily locked the door, she paraded up and down bowing right and leftgraciously to her obsequious retainers. She stretched out her lily white handfor the trembling old steward to kiss (as a baby he had often dandled her onhis knee, and when he pressed it with his pallid lips she felt something fallupon it” [27; 60].
The literarycharacter’s retorts also represent the THEATRE concept: “In this businessyou have to take the rough with the smooth. You’re the best actress in England”[27; 79].
From thisfragment we can make conclusion that the author considered that an actress mustbe integral personality, and it is not enough to have good career only: “Withhim she sought to be neither gay nor brilliant, she was tender and wistful. Herheart ached, notwithstanding the scintillating performance she had given duringthe day; arid ‘it was with almost complete sincerity that with sighs, sad looksand broken sentences, she made him understand that her life was hollow anddespite the long continued success of her career she could not but feel thatshe had missed something. Sometimes she thought of the villa at Sorrento on thebay of Naples” [27; 141]. In this case the real theatre is represented bythe author.
Besides, theTHEATRE concept is represented with the help of the introduction of theliterary character’s activities:
1) “Menwere creatures of habit; that gave women such a hold on them. She did not feela day older than he, and she was convinced that the disparity in their ages hadnever occurred to him” [27; 163]
2) “Shecould go and act in America for a year till the scandal had died down and thengo into management with somebody else. But it would be a bore” [27; 172]
The THEATREconcept is also represented in the description of the events of the novel: “Theplay went well from the beginning; the audience, notwithstanding the season, afashionable one, were pleased after the holidays to find themselves once morein a playhouse, and were ready to be amused” [27; 273].
So the THEATREconcept is very wide-spread in the novel “Theatre” by W.S. Maugham.
2.2 Theatreas people for W.S.Maugham’s
We have madesome analysis of the fragments of the novel and can make conclusions that W.S.Maugham did not considered theatre as we used to. In the novel he showed usanother side of theatre – theatre as people, actors; theatre as business, asmoney.
Theatre aspeople is mainly represented by W.S.Maugham with the help of the concept“actor”. The mentioned concept is mainly represented with the help of Julia’simage. So the author underlines the peculiarities of the actor’s activity inthe following context: “She did it, if not mechanically, from an instinctivedesire to please” [27; 18].
Besides, theconcept “actor” is introduced with the help of the literary character’sretorts. For instance, this phenomenon is typical for Michael’s opinion: “Don’tbe natural The stage isn’t the place for that. The stage ismake-believe. But seem natural” [27; 20].
The use of theelements of Julia’s biography also represents the concept “actor”: “Her owncareer had been singularly lacking in hardship She learnt to speakFrench like a Frenchwoman. She was a born actress and it was an understoodthing for as long as she could remember that she was to go on the stage When Julia was a child of twelve this actress was a boisterous, fatold woman of more than sixty, but of great vitality, who loved food more thananything else in the world. She had a great, ringing laugh, like a man’s, andshe talked in a deep, loud voice. It was she who gave Julia her first lessons. Shetaught her all the arts that she had herself learnt at the Conservatoire andshe talked to her of Reichenberg who had played ingenues20 till she wasseventy, of Sarah Bernhardt and her golden voice, of Mounet-Sully and hismajesty, and of Coquelin the greatest actor of them all. She recited to her thegreat tirades of Corneille and Racine as she had learnt to say them at theFrancaise and taught her to say them in the same way. It was charming to hearJulia in her childish voice recite those languorous, passionate speeches ofPhedre, emphasizing the beat of the Alexandrines and mouthing her words in thatmanner which is so artificial and yet so wonderfully dramatic. Jane Taitboutmust always have been a very stagy actress, but she taught Julia to articulatewith extreme distinctness, she taught her how to walk and how to hold herself,she taught her not to be afraid of her own voice, and she made deliberate thatwonderful sense of timing which Julia had by instinct and which afterwards wasone of her greatest gifts.
When Juliawas sixteen and went to the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in Gower Street sheknew already much that they could teach her there. She had to get rid of acertain number of tricks that were out of date and she had to acquire a mere conversationalstyle. But she won every prize that was open to her, and when she was finishedwith the school her good French got her almost immediately a small part inLondon as a French maid. It looked for a while as though her knowledge ofFrench would specialize her in parts needing a foreign accent, for after thisshe was engaged to play an Austrian waitress” [27; 23].
Theconversations between the literary characters of the novel represent theconcept “actor” best of all. So the literary character’s retorts represent thementioned concept:
1) “That’sthe face an actress wants. The face that can look anything, even beautiful, theface that can show every thought that passes through the mind. That’s the faceDuse’s got” [27; 24].
2) “Actorsare rotten, not parts. You’ve got a wonderful-voice, the voice that can wringan audience’s heart; I don’t know about your comedy, I’m prepared to risk that”[27; 24].
3) “You’regoing to be a star. Nothing can stop you” [27; 39]
4) “Thecritics are right, damn, you’re an actress and no mistake” [27; 39].
Some otherfragments also represent the concept “actor”:
1) “CharlesTamerley always said that what an actress needed was not intelligence, butsensibility, and he might be right; perhaps she wasn’t clever, but her feelingswere alert and she trusted them” [27; 127].
2) “Therewas a certain fun to be got out of a man who never knew what you were talkingabout. But what did they mean when they said an actress had genius? “[27;135]
3) “Actorsdo their damned look like gentlemen and gentlemen do all they can to look likeactors” [27; 232]
The concept“actor” is represented as the description of the literary character’s person inthe following fragments:
1) “She hadacquired the reputation of a perfectly virtuous woman whom the tongue ofscandal could not touch, and now it looked as though her reputation was aprison that she had built round herself. But there was worse. What had Tommeant by saying that she ate out of his hand? That deeply affronted her. Sillylittle fool. How dare he? She didn’t know what to do about it either. She wouldhave liked to tax him with it. What was the good? He would deny it. The onlything was to say nothing; it had all gone too far now, she must accepteverything. It was no good not facing the truth, he didn't love her, he was herlover because it gratified his self-esteem, because it brought him variousthings he cared for and because in his own eyes at least it gave him a sort ofposition” [27; 177].
2) “Thestrange thing was that when she looked into her heart it was not Julia Lambertthe woman who resented the affront, she didn’t care for herself, it was theaffront to Julia Lambert the actress that stung her. She had often felt thather talent, genius the critics called it,' but that was a very grand word, hergift, if you like, was not really herself, not even part of her, і butsomething outside that used her, Julia Lambert the woman, in order to expressitself. It was a strange, immaterial personality that seemed to descend uponher and it did things through her that she did not know she was capable ofdoing. She was an ordinary, prettyish, ageing woman. Her gift had neither agenor form. If was a spirit that played on her body as the violinist plays on hisviolin” [27; 177].
So the concept“actor” is very wide-spread in the novel “Theatre” by W.S. Maugham. Thefunctional role of the use of the mentioned concept is based on the author’srepresentation of the theatre as people for W.S.Maugham’s.
concepttheatre Maugham
2.3 Theplace of tropes in W.S.Maugham’s presentation of the theatre concept
From ourresearch we found out that W.S.Maugham was also a very good master of literarystyle.
As we know stylistic device is aconscious and intentional intensification of some typical structural and/orsemantic property of a language unit (neutral or expressive) promoted to ageneralized status and thus becoming a generative model. Stylistic device is anabstract pattern, a mould into which any content can be poured.
Stylisticdevicesare the conscious and intentional, literary uses of some of thefacts of the language ( excluding expressive means ) in which the mostessential features ( both structural and semantic ) of the language forms areraised to a generalized level and thereby present a generative model. A stylistic device is an intentional change of a fixed(usual) distribution of language units inspeech.
W.S.Maugham’srepresentation of the THEATRE concept is mainly realized with the help oftropes. For instance, the following fragment includes the use of the epithet great:
“That’s because the public isn’t really interested in the theatre. In thegreat days of the English stage people didn’t go to see the plays, they went tosee the players. It didn’t matter what Kemble and Mrs. Siddons acted. Thepublic went to see them. And even now, though I don’t deny that if the play’swrong you’re dished, I do contend that if the play’s right, it’s the actors thepublic go to see, not the play” [27; 17].
Anotherfragment of the novel also represents the THEATRE concept realized with thehelp of the epithet lovely, fairly tall, long, low rich, effective,emotional and too-modern: “She had her clothes made in Paris, both forthe stage and for private life, and the dressmakers said that no one broughtthem more orders. She had a lovely figure, everyone admitted that; she wasfairly tall for a woman, and she had long legs. It was а pity she had never hada chance of playing Rosalind, she would have looked all right in boy’s clothes,of course it was too late now, but perhaps it was just as well she hadn’trisked it. Though you would have thought, with her brilliance, her roguishness,her sense of comedy she would have been perfect. The critics hadn’t reallyliked her Beatrice. It was that damned blank verse. Her voice, her rather lowrich voice, with that effective hoarseness, which wrung your heart in anemotional passage or gave so much humor to a comedy line, seemed to sound allwrong when she spoke it. And then her articulation; it was so distinct that,without raising her voice, she could make you hear her every word in the lastrow of the gallery; they said it made verse sound like prose. The fact was, shesupposed, that she was much too-modern” [27; 19].
The authoruses some tropes for the representation of the THEATRE concept in the followingcontext of the novel. So he uses the simile like a high-born damsel, theepithetsgreat,ancient, wonderfully good, tremblingold and pallid: “She felt like a high-born damsel, with all thetradition of a great and ancient family to keep up; her purity was a pearl ofgreat price; she also felt that she was making a wonderfully good impression:of course he was I a great gentleman, and “damn it all” it behaved her to be agreat lady. She was so pleased with her performance that when she had got intoher room and somewhat noisily locked the door, she paraded up and down bowingright and left graciously to her obsequious retainers. She stretched out herlily white hand for the trembling old steward to kiss (as a baby he had oftendandled her on his knee, and when he pressed it with his pallid lips she feltsomething fall upon it” [27; 60]. In this case the events represented bythe author introduce the mentioned concept.
Another use ofthe epithets is also represented in the THEATRE concept: “In this businessyou have to take the rough with the smooth. You’re the best actress in England”[27; 79]. In this case the epithet best is used.
The tropes areused in the following fragment of the novel in order to represent the THEATREconcept: “With him she sought to be neither gay nor brilliant, she wastender and wistful. Her heart ached, notwithstanding the scintillatingperformance she had given during the day; arid’ it was with almost completesincerity that with sighs, sad looks and broken sentences, she made himunderstand that her life was hollow and despite the long continued success ofher career she could not but feel that she had missed something. Sometimes shethought of the villa at Sorrento on the bay of Naples” [27; 141]. So theepithets gay, brilliant, tender, wistful, scintillating,long continued are used in this case.
The THEATREconcept is also represented by the use of the epithet fashionable in thefollowing fragment: “The play went well from the beginning; the audience,notwithstanding the season, a fashionable one, were pleased after the holidaysto find themselves once more in a playhouse, and were ready to be amused”[27; 273].
So the THEATREconcept is mainly realized with the help of the use of epithets and similes inW.S.Maugham’s “Theatre” what made the novel more emotionally painted.
Conclusions
The tasks ofour study were to learn the concept as the basic term of cognitive linguistics,to generalize the notion of theatre. Having made our study we can make someconclusions.
As rememberedconceptualization is the process of the creation and construction of concept inthe human recognition. It is also the process of thought concerning the newinformation that causes the creation of concept. The study of concept is themain task of the cognitive linguistics. Every attempt to realize the nature ofconcept causes the realization of the fact of presence of closely-relatedconcepts and terms. Concept is the intellectual category that may not berecognized visually. This fact causes the presence of the wide area for theinterpretation of concept.
Every languagemark represents concept in the language, but it does not represent concept in awhole. With the assistance of its meaning the language mark represents severalconceptual features that are relevant for the transmission of the information.If we need to express concept in a whole it is necessary to apply differentlinguistic means and the whole nominative field of concept. So both concept andits compounds may be verbalized and non-verbalized. It is difficult to defineconcepts that are non-verbalized.
The mostwide-spread definition of concept is following: concept is the discrete mentalcreation that is the basic unit of the intellectual code of the human. Thiscode is characterized by the internal structure. It is a result of thecognitive activity of the human and society and brings the complex and encyclopedicinformation about the subject and phenomenon and the social attitude to thisphenomenon.
Concepts maybe classified according to the type of knowledge and reflection of realitybecause these types are the foundation of the method of the assignment anddescription of concept.
Soconcepts represent the world in the human recognition creating the conceptualsystem. Besides, the marks of the human language codify the content of thissystem in the world. Concepts appear in the human recognition as a result ofthe activity, interpretation of the world and socialization. Every conceptincludes the generalized content of different forms of expression in thenatural language and in spheres that are based on the language and theirpresence is impossible without language. Concepts as the results of theintellectual activity should be verbalized. The language connects the peopleinto the nation with the assistance of concepts.
The nominative field is based on the conceptual or, in other words,semantic fields. Words may be classified according to the concepts underlyingtheir meaning. This classification is closely connected with the theory ofconceptual or semantic fields. Besides, the theory of semantic fieldis severely criticized by the linguists mainly on philosophical groundssince some of the proponents of the semantic field theory hold the idealisticview that, language is a kind of self-containedentity standing between the man and the world of reality.
We maderesearch of the novel «Theatre» to expose the THEATRE concept, andcan make conclusion that W.S.Maugham considered theatre not like other writers.
In general theword “theatre” means a “place for seeing”. The two most common types of theatreplays are comedy and tragedy, symbolized by the theatre masks. The firstrecorded theatrical event was a performance of the sacred plays of the myth ofOsiris and Isis in 2500 BC in Egypt. This story of the god Osiris was performedannually at festivals throughout the civilization, marking the beginning of along relationship between theatre and religion.
Besides, themost recognizable figures in theatre (according toW.S.Maugham) are thedirectors, playwrights, and actors, but theatre is a highly collaborative endeavor.Plays are usually produced by a production team that commonly includes a scenicor set designer, lighting designer, costume designer, sound designer, stagemanager, props mistress or master and production manager.
The THEATREconcept is represented in different fragments of W.S.Maugham’s novel. It ismainly represented with the help of the introduction of the literarycharacter’s activities. It is mainly realized with the help of the use ofepithets and similes. The theatre as people is mainly represented byW.S.Maugham with the help of the concept “actor”.
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