Contents
Introduction
1. Theoretical issues of translation
1.1 Development of translation notion in linguistics
1.2 Equivalence of translation
1.3 Types of translation
1.4 Pragmatics of translation
2. Lexical and grammatical peculiarities ofscientific-technical texts
2.1 The characteristic of thescientific and technical language
2.2 Analysis of terminology in scientific-technical style
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
At present timethere is a great necessity to emphasize scientific-technical translation notonly as a special kind of translation activity and special theory thatinvestigates this kind of activity but as to assign scientific-technicaltranslation a status of independent applied science. From the linguisticviewpoint peculiarities of scientific-technical are spread on its stylistics,grammar and lexics. The main task of scientific-technical translation is apossibly clear and precise bringing of the information to the reader. This canbe achived by logical interpretation of actual material without explicitemotionality. The style of scientific-technical materials can be identified asformally logical.
Scientific-technicaltexts reveal a great number of grammar peculiarities. The most typical lexicalfeature of scientific-technical materials is terms and terminology saturationas well as presence of lexical structures and acronyms. A special place in suchmaterials are the texts oriented not only for this group language speakers butfor representatives of a certain professional group with certainextralinguistic knowledge.
The aim of thisterm paper is devoted to peculiarities of scientific-technical translation.
The followingtasks were set up to identify translation peculiarities of technical materials:
1. Reveal anddescribe common linguistic basis of translation, identify what peculiarities oflanguage systems and functions are the foundations of translation process.
2. Classifymain kinds of translation activity.
3. Research peculiaritiesof scientific-technical materials.
4. Studyspecific English terminology required for professional translation.
5. Analysegrammatical and lexical peculiarities of scientific-technical texts.
The object ofthis research is some scientific-technical texts representing manuals forelectric devices. The subject of this research is the translation ofscientifi-technical materials.
The paperconsists of introduction, two chapters and conclusion. It is also provided withbibliography list.
The introductionexplains the urgency of the research theme, its theoretical and practicalvalue, it identifies the object, subject, aim and tasks of the work.
The firstchapter of this research is devoted to the review of theoretical issues oftranslation, classification of translation and description of certain kinds oftranslation as well as types of texts being translated.
The secondchapter ivestigates scientific-technical terminology, morphological structureof terms (simple, compound, term phrases), it analyses the main approaches oftheir translation into English (use of equvalents, analogues, calking andtransliteration), structure of scientific-technical terms, translation of fullitems, acronyms, company items and difficulties related to structure differencesof compared languages.
Methodology ofthe research. The aim achivement of the research and implementation of the setup tasks outlines the need in a number of theoretical and emperical methods ofresearch (theoretical research, concretization, modelling, studying of specificliterature, manuals, dictionaries).
Theoreticalvalue of the research results. The ivestigation, detalization of the issuesstudied, theoretical value of the received results leads to the conclusion thatthis research finds out the necessity to emphasize scientific-technicaltranslation as an independent applied science.
The results ofthe research are submitted in the conclusion of the work.
1. Theoretical issues oftranslation
Translation isthe interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language and the production,in another language, of an equivalent text that communicates the same message.Translation must take into account a number of constraints, including context,the rules of grammar of the two languages, their writing conventions, theiridioms and the like. Consequently, as has been recognized at least since thetime of the translator Martin Luther, one translates best into the languagethat one knows best. Traditionally translation has been a human activity,though attempts have been made to computerize or otherwise automate thetranslation of natural-language texts (machine translation) or to use computersas an aid to translation (computer-assisted translation). [1; 48] Perhaps themost common misconception about translation is that there exists a simple“word-for-word” relation between any two languages, and that translation istherefore a straightforward and mechanical process. On the contrary, historicaldifferences between languages often dictate differences of expression. Hence,source and target texts may differ significantly in length. In addition,translation is always fraught with uncertainties as well as the potential forinadvertent “spilling over” of idioms and usages from one language into theother, producing linguistic hybrids, for example, «Franglais»(French-English), «Spanglish» (Spanish-English) and«Poglish» (Polish-English). [2; 31]
The translationof technical texts (manuals, instructions, etc). More specifically, texts thatcontain a high amount of terminology, that is, words or expressions that areused (almost) only within a specific field, or that describe that field in agreat deal of detail. The translation of scientific research papers, abstracts,conference proceedings, and other publications from one language into another.The specialized technical vocabulary used by researchers in each disciplinedemand that the translator of scientific texts have technical as well aslinguistic expertise.
1.1 Development of translationnotion in linguistics
Among multipleproblems that modern linguistics studies an important role is played bystudying of lingustic aspects of cross-language speaking activity that iscalled translation or translating activity. Translation is an ancient human’sactivity. Due to groups of people appeared in the history of mankind haddifferent languages the bilinguals became urgent as they helped communicationbetween groups with different languages. Then writing appeared and along withoral interpreters written translators became urgent as well. They translateddifferent texts of official, religious and business issues. From its verybeginning translation played a significant social function allowing people ofdifferent languages communicate. Spreading of written translations gave peopleaccess to cultural achivements of other people and it made interacting andintersaturation of literatures and cultures feasible. Knowledge of foreignlanguages allows reading books originally written in those languages [3; 562].
The firsttheoreticals of translation were the translators themselves who tried togeneralize their own experience. Translators of ancient world discussed theissue of proximity degree to the source text. In early Bible translations ortranslations of other materials that were considered to be sacral and exemplarywe can find word for word approach of the source text interpretation thatsometimes lead to partly or even full misunderstanding of translations. That iswhy later translators tried theoretically approve the right of translator forreasonable variety in subject to the source text that meant the interpretationof meaning and the impression of the source text instead of word for word coping[4; 124].
The foundationsof scientific theory of translation started to be develped in the middle ofXXth century when the problematics of translating appeared to be urgent amongstlinguists. Before that period it was thought that translation is not the issueof linguistic range. Translators themselves considered linguistic aspects to benon-significant but totally technical role. The translator was supposed to befluent both in source and target languages but knowledge of the language wasjust a preliminary condition and did not cover its meaning.
By the middleof XXth century the attitude to translation activity had changed and itssystematic studying commenced. During this period the translation of political,commercial, scientific-technical and other texts was of great priority. Inthose types of translation the features of individual writer’s style were notimportant. Due to this fact more and more attention was paid to the maindifficulties of translation related to different structures and functioning oflanguages in this process.
The meaning oflanguage units was emphasized by more precise requirements for the translation.During the translation of such materials it was not enough to get “general”translation as the translation was supposed to provide information transmissionin all details up to the meaning of single words. It was required to identifylinguistic meaning of this process and what factors identified it and whatrange they have for information transmiting. [4,5; 37,12]1.2 Equivalence of translation
So, there are always two texts duringtranslation, and one of them is initial and is created independently on thesecond one, and the second text is created on the basis of the first one withthe help of some certain operations — the inter language transformations. Thefirst text is called “the text of original"; the second text is called“the text of translation". The language of the text of original is called“ the source language” (SL). The language of the text of translation is called“ the target language” (TL). [10; 97]
We need to define the most important thing: whydo we consider that the text of translation is equivalent to the text oforiginal? For example, why do we speak that the Russian sentence “Мой братживет в Лондоне" is the translation of the English sentence “My brotherlives in London", while the Russian sentence “Я учусь в университете” isnot the translation of the English sentence given above — to say in other words- is not equivalent to it? Obviously, the replacement of the text in onelanguage by the text in the other language is not always the translation. Thesame idea can be expressed in the other way: the process of translation or theinter language transformation is realised not arbitrary, but with the help ofsome certain rules, in some strict frameworks. And if we do not observe thisrules we have already no rights to speak about translation. To have the rightsto be called the translation, the text on TL should contain in it somethingthat the text on SL contains. Or else, while replacing the text on SL by thetext on TL it is necessary to keep some certain invariant; the measure ofkeeping of this invariant defines by itself the measure of the equivalence ofthe text of translation to the text of original. So, first of all, it isnecessary to define what is the invariant in the process of translation, thatis in the process of transformation of the text on SL in the text on TL. [10;176]
At the decision of this problem it is necessary totake in account the following. The process of translation directly depends onbilateral character of a mark, as it is called in a mark systems science — semiotics — It means that any mark can be characterised from two sides, orplans the plan of expression or form and the plan of contents or meaning. It isknown that the language is a specific mark system, that is why the units oflanguage are also characterised by the presence of two plans, both form andmeaning. Thus the main role for translation is played by that fact thatdifferent languages contain different units and this units differ from eachother in the way of expression, that is by the form, but they are similar inthe way of the contents, that is by the meaning. For example, the English word«brother» differs from Russian word “брат" in the way of theexpression, but coincides with it in the way of the contents, that is has thesame meaning. [11; 312]
The English word «brother» has not onlythe meaning “брат" but also some meanings expressed in Russian language bythe words “собрат", “земляк", “коллега”, “приятель" etc. And theRussian word “брат" in the combination “двоюродный брат” corresponds notto the English word «brother», but to the word «cousin»,which means not only “двоюродный брат” but also “двоюродная сестра". Thisphenomenon, namely, the incomplete concurrence of systems of meanings of unitsin different languages, complicates the process translation. Taking in accountthis fact we can say, that if we replace the English word «brother»by the Russian word “брат", the process of translation takes place here,as these words, differing in the way of expression, that is by the form,coincide or are equivalent in the way of the contents, that is by the meaning.Actually, however, as the minimal text is the sentence, the process oftranslation is always realised in the limits of minimum one sentence. And inthe sentence, as a rule, the discrepancy between the units of differentlanguages in the way of the contents is eliminated. Proceeding from this, wecan give now the following definition of the translation:
The translationis the process of transformation of the speech product in one language into thespeech product in the other language by keeping the constant plan of thecontents, that is the meanings.
About “ the keeping of the constant plan of thecontents” it is possible to speak only in the relative, but not in the absolutesense. During the inter language transformation some losses are inevitable,that is the incomplete transference of meanings, expressed by the text of theoriginal, is taking place. [10; 29]
So, the text of translation can never be completeand absolute equivalent of the text of original; the task of the interpreter isto make this equivalence as complete as it is possible, that is to achieve theminimum of losses. It means, that one of the tasks of the theory of translationis the establishment of the order of transference of meanings. Taking intoaccount that there are various types of meanings, it is necessary to establishwhich of them have the advantages during the transference in the process oftranslation, and which of them it is possible “to endow" so that thesemantic losses would be minimal while translating.
To finish the consideration of the question aboutthe essence of translation, it is necessary to answer one question yet. Thisquestion arises from the definition of translation equivalence based on thekeeping of the constant plan of the contents, that is the meaning, given above.It was already marked that the opportunity of keeping of plan of the contents,that is the invariance of meanings while translating, assumes that in thedifferent languages there are some units that are similar in the way ofmeaning.
The divergence in the semantic systems of differentlanguages is a certainty fact and it is the source of numerous difficultiesarising before the interpreter in the process of translation.
That is why, many researchers consider that theequivalence of the original and the translation is not based on the identity ofexpressed meanings. From the numerous statements on this theme we shall quoteonly one, belonging to the English theorist of translation J. Ketford: “ … Theopinion that the text on SL and the text on TL “have the same meaning" or thatthere is “a carry of meaning" while translating, have no bases. From ourpoint of view, the meaning is the property of the certain language. The text onSL have the meaning peculiar to TL; for example, the Russian text has Russianmeaning, and the English text, that is the equivalent of it, has the Englishmeaning. [12; 120]
For the benefit of translation it is possible tostate the following arguments:
In the system of meanings of any language theresults of human experience are embodied, that is the knowledge that the manreceives about the objectively existing reality.
In any language, the system of language meaningsreflects the whole external world of the man, and his own internal world too,that is the whole practical experience of the collective, speaking the givenlanguage, is fixed. As the reality, environmental different languagecollectives, has much more than common features, than distinguishes, so themeanings of different languages coincide in a much more degree, than they miss.The other thing is that these meanings (the units of sense or “semes’) aredifferently combined, grouped and expressed in different languages: but itconcerns already not to the plan of the contents but to the plan of thelanguage expression.
The greatest difficulties during translationarise when the situation described in the text on
SL is absent in the experience of languagecollective — the carrier of TL, otherwise, when in the initial text theso-called “realities” are described, that is different subjects and phenomenaspecific to the given people or the given country.
The ability to describe new unfamiliar situationsis the integral property of any language; and this property makes what we speakabout to be possible.
The translation was determined above as theprocess of transformation of speech product in one language into the speechproduct in the other language. Thus, the interpreter deals not with thelanguages as the systems, but with the speech products, that is with the texts.Those semantic divergences, that is in the meanings, which we are talkingabout, concern, first of all, to systems of different languages; in the speechthese divergences very often are neutralised, erased, brought to nothing.
The concrete distribution of elementary units ofsense (“semes" or semantic units) on separate words, word combinations orsentences of the given text is defined by the numerous and complex factors.And, as a rule, it does not coincide in the text on SL and text on TL. But itconcerns not to the plan of the contents, but to the plan of expression and isnot the infringement of a principle of semantic equivalence of the texts oforiginal and the text of translation. [15; 65]
Last give an example to prove the fact given above.In the story of the known English writer S. Moem “A Casual Affair " we cansee the following sentence: " He'd always been so spruce and smart; he wasshabby and unwashed and wild-eyed ". This is the Russian variant of this sentence: «Прежде он былтаким щеголем, таким элегантным, а теперь бродил по улицам Сингапура грязный, влохмотьях, с одичалым взглядом. (translation of Litvinova M) On the first sight the Russian text do notseems to be the equivalent to the English one: there are such words as „прежде,а теперь, бродил по улицам Сингапура“ in it, which have not the directconformities in the text of original. But really, the semantic equivalence isavailable here, though here are no verbal equivalence, of course. The thing isthat the Russian words “прежде» and “а теперь” transfer the meanings,which are expressed not by the words, but by the grammatical forms in theEnglish text: the opposition of the forms of the verb «to be» -“hadbeen” and “was” expresses that the first event is taking place before thesecond one, which has the logical expression through adverbs of time in Russianlanguage. [10; 90]
Words “бродил по улицам Сингапура" transferthe semantic information, which the initial English text contains too, but inone of the previous sentences, not in the given sentence (He didn't been thejob in Sumatra long and he was back again in Singapore). So, the semanticequivalence is provided not between the separate words and even not between theseparate sentences here, but between the whole text on SL and the whole text onTL as a whole. [12; 37]
So, the semantic divergences between thelanguages can not serve as the insuperable obstacle for the translation, byvirtue of that circumstance, that the translation deals with the languages notas the abstract systems, but with the concrete speech products (texts). And intheir limits there is the complex interlacing and interaction of qualitativelydiverse language means being the expressions of meanings — of words,grammatical forms, and «super signments» means, transmitting this orthat semantic information together. That semantic equivalence of the texts ofthe original and the text of translation, which we regard as the necessarycondition of the process of translation, exists not between the separateelements of these texts, but between the texts as a whole. And inside the giventext the numerous regroupings, rearrangement and redistribution of separateelements are not only allowed, but frequently they are simply inevitable,(" translation transformations "). So, while translating, there is astrict rule — the principle of submission of elements to the whole, of thelowest units to the highest. [16; 176]1.3Types of translation
Though thebasic characteristics of translation can be observed in all translation events,different types of translation can be singled out depending on the predominantcommunicative function of the source text or the form of speech involved in thetranslation process. Thus we can distinguish between literary and informativetranslation, on the one hand, and between written and oral translation (orinterpretation), on the other hand. [18; 251]
Literarytranslation deals with literary texts, i. e. works of fiction or poetry whosemain function is to make an emotional or aesthetic impression upon the reader.Their communicative value depends, first and foremost, on their artisticquality and the translator's primary task is to reproduce this quality intranslation.
Informativetranslation is rendering into the target language non-literary texts, the mainpurpose of which is to convey a certain amount of ideas, to inform the reader.However, if the source text is of some length, its translation can be listed asliterary or informative only as an approximation. A literary text may, in fact,include some parts of purely informative character. Contrariwise, informativetranslation may comprise some elements aimed at achieving an aesthetic effect.Within each group further gradations can be made to bring out more specificproblems in literary or informative translation. [2,7; 34,97]
Literary worksare known to fall into a number of genres. Literary translations may besubdivided in the same way, as each genre calls for a specific arrangement andmakes use of specific artistic means to impress the reader. Translators ofprose, poetry or plays have their own problems. Each of these forms of literaryactivities comprises a number of subgenres and the translator may specialize inone or some of them in accordance with his talents and experience. Theparticular tasks inherent in the translation of literary works of each genreare more literary than linguistic. The great challenge to the translator is tocombine the maximum equivalence and the high literary merit. [5,10; 34,49]
The translatorof a belles-lettres text is expected to make a careful study of the literarytrend the text belongs to, the other works of the same author, thepeculiarities of his individual style and manner and sn on. This involves bothlinguistic considerations and skill in literary criticism. A good literarytranslator must be a versatile scholar and a talented writer or poet.
A number ofsubdivisions can be also suggested for informative translations, though theprinciples of classification here are somewhat different. Here we may singleout translations of scientific and technical texts, of newspaper materials, ofofficial papers and some other types of texts such as public speeches,political and propaganda materials, advertisements, etc., which are, so tospeak, intermediate, in that there is a certain balance between the expressiveand referential functions, between reasoning and emotional appeal. [13; 21]
Translation ofscientific and technical materials has a most important role to play in our ageof the revolutionary technical progress. There is hardly a translator or aninterpreter today who has not to deal with technical matters. Even the«purely» literary translator often comes across highly technicalstuff in works of fiction or even in poetry. An in-depth theoretical study ofthe specific features of technical translation is an urgent task of translationlinguistics while training of technical translators is a major practicalproblem.
In technicaltranslation the main goal is to identify the situation described in theoriginal. The predominance of the referential function is a great challenge tothe translator who must have a good command of the technical terms and asufficient understanding of the subject matter to be able to give an adequatedescription of the situation even if this is not fully achieved in theoriginal. The technical translator is also expected to observe the stylisticrequirements of scientific and technical materials to make text acceptable tothe specialist.
Some types oftexts can be identified not so much by their positive distinctive features asby the difference in their functional characteristics in the two languages.English newspaper reports differ greatly from their Russian counterparts due tothe frequent use of colloquial, slang and vulgar elements, various paraphrases,eye-catching headlines, etc. [17; 58]
When thetranslator finds in a newspaper text the headline «Minister bares histeeth on fluoridation» which just means that this minister has taken a resolutestand on the matter, he will think twice before referring to the minister'steeth in the Russian translation. He would rather use a less expressive way ofputting it to avoid infringement upon the accepted norms of the Russiannewspaper style.
Apart fromtechnical and newspaper materials it may be expedient to single out translationof official diplomatic papers as a separate type of informative translation.These texts make a category of their own because of the specific requirementsto the quality of their translations. Such translations are often accepted asauthentic official texts on a par with the originals. They are importantdocuments every word of which must be carefully chosen as a matter ofprinciple. That makes the translator very particular about every littlemeaningful element of the original which he scrupulously reproduces in histranslation. This scrupulous imitation of the original results sometimes in thetranslator more readily erring in literality than risking to leave out even aninsignificant element of the original contents.
Journalistic(or publicistic) texts dealing with social or political matters are sometimessingled out among other informative materials because they may feature elementsmore commonly used in literary text (metaphors, similes and other stylisticdevices) which cannot but influence the translator's strategy. More often,however, they are regarded as a kind of newspaper materials (periodicals).
There are alsosome minor groups of texts that can be considered separately because of thespecific problems their translation poses to the translator. They are filmscripts, comic strips, commercial advertisements and the like. In dubbing afilm the translator is limited in his choice of variants by the necessity to fitthe pronunciation of the translated words to the movement of the actor's lips.
Translating thecaptions in a comic strip, the translator will have to consider the numerousallusions to the facts well-known to the regular readers of comics but lessfamiliar to the Russian readers. And in dealing with commercial advertisementshe must bear in mind that their sole purpose is to win over the prospectivecustomers. Since the text of translation will deal with quite a different kindof people than the original advertisement was meant for, there is the problemof achieving the same pragmatic effect by introducing the necessary changes inthe message. Though the present manual is concerned with the problems ofwritten translation from English into Russian, some remarks should be madeabout the obvious classification of translations as written or oral. As thenames suggest, in written translation the source text is in written form, as isthe target text. In oral translation or interpretation the interpreter listensto the oral presentation of the original and translates it as an oral messagein TL. As a result, in the first case the Receptor of the translation can readit while in the second case he hears it.
There are alsosome intermediate types. The interpreter rendering his translation by word ofmouth may have the text of the original in front of him and translate it “atsight". A written translation can be made of the original recorded on themagnetic tape that can be replayed as many times as is necessary for thetranslator to grasp the original meaning. The translator can dictate his “atsight" translation of a written text to the typist or a short-hand writerwith TR getting the translation in written form. [20; 54]
These are all,however, modifications of the two main types of translation. The line ofdemarcation between written and oral translation is drawn not only because oftheir forms but also because of the sets of conditions in which the processtakes place. The first is continuous, the other momentary. In writtentranslation the original can be read and re-read as many times as thetranslator may need or like. The same goes for the final product. Thetranslator can re-read his translation, compare it to the original, make thenecessary corrections or start his work all over again. He can come back to thepreceding part of the original or get the information he needs from thesubsequent messages. These are most favourable conditions and here we canexpect the best performance and the highest level of equivalence. That is whyin theoretical discussions we have usually examples from written translationswhere the translating process can be observed in all its aspects.
The conditionsof oral translation impose a number of important restrictions on the translator'sperformance. Here the interpreter receives a fragment of the original only onceand for a short period of time. His translation is also a one-time act with nopossibility of any return to the original or any subsequent corrections. Thiscreates additional problems and the users have sometimes; to be content with alower level of equivalence. [19; 32]
There are twomain kinds of oral translation — consecutive and simultaneous. In consecutivetranslation the translating starts after the original speech or some part of ithas been completed. Here the interpreter's strategy and the final resultsdepend, to a great extent, on the length of the segment to be translated. Ifthe segment is just a sentence or two the interpreter closely follows theoriginal speech. As often as not, however, the interpreter is expected totranslate a long speech which has lasted for scores of minutes or even longer.In this case he has to remember a great number of messages and keep them inmind until he begins his translation. To make this possible the interpreter hasto take notes of the original messages, various systems of notation having beensuggested for the purpose. The study of, and practice in, such notation is theintegral part of the interpreter's training as are special exercises to develophis memory. [14107]
Sometimes theinterpreter is set a time limit to give his rendering, which means that he willhave to reduce his translation considerably, selecting and reproducing the mostimportant parts of the original and dispensing with the rest.
This impliesthe ability to make a judgement on the relative value of various messages andto generalize or compress the received information. The interpreter mustobviously be a good and quickwitted thinker.
In simultaneousinterpretation the interpreter is supposed to be able to give his translationwhile the speaker is uttering the original message. This can be achieved with aspecial radio or telephone-type equipment. The interpreter receives theoriginal speech through his earphones and simultaneously talks into themicrophone which transmits his translation to the listeners. This type oftranslation involves a number of psycholinguistic problems, both of theoreticaland practical nature.
1.4 Pragmatics of translation
Words inlanguage are related to certain referents which they designate and to otherwords of the same language with which they make up syntactic units. Theserelationships are called semantic and syntactic, respectively. Words are alsorelated to the people who use them. To the users of the language its words arenot just indifferent, unemotional labels of objects or ideas. The peopledevelop a certain attitude to the words they use. Some of the words acquiredefinite implications, they evoke a positive or negative response, they areassociated with certain theories, beliefs, likes or dislikes. There are«noble» words like «honour, dignity, freedom», etc. and«low» words Шее «infamy, cowardice, betrayal». Words can benice or ugly, attractive or repulsive. Such relationships between the word andits users are called «pragmatic». [12; 28]
The pragmaticimplications of a word are an important part of its meaning that produces acertain effect upon the Receptor. Of even greater significance is the pragmaticaspect of speech units. Every act of speech communication is meant for acertain Receptor, it is aimed at producing a certain effect upon him. In thisrespect any communication is an exercise in pragmatics.
Since the pragmaticeffect plays such an important part in communication, its preservation intranslation is the primary concern of the translator, though it is by no meansan easy task. The pragmatic aspect of translation involves a number ofdifficult problems.
To begin with,the pragmatics of the original text cannot be as a rule directly reproduced intranslation but often require important changes in the transmitted message.Correlated words in different languages may produce dissimilar effect upon theusers. An «ambition» in English is just the name of a quality whichmay evoke any kind of response — positive, negative or neutral. Its Russiancounterpart «амбиция» is definitely not a nice word. Thus, the phrase'The voters put an end to the general's political ambitions" can betranslated as «Избиратели положили конец политическим амбициямгенерала», retaining the negative implication of the original, but if theimplication were positive the translator would not make use of the derogatoryterm. The sentence 'The boy's ambition was to become a pilot" will betranslated as «Мечтой мальчика было стать летчиком».
Such words as«idealism» or «nationalism» often have a positive effect inthe English text and are rendered into Russian not as «идеализм» or«национализм» but as «служение идеалам, бескорыстие» and«национальное самосознание, национальные интересы», respectively.[15; 64]
When weconsider not just separate words but a phrase or number of phrases in a text,the problem becomes more complicated. The communicative effect of a speech unitdoes not depend on the meaning of its components alone, but involvesconsiderations of the situational context and the previous experience. A reportthat John has run a hundred metres in 9 seconds will pass unnoticed by somepeople and create a sensation with others who happen to know that it is awonderful record-breaking achievement.
Here again, agreat role is played by differences in the historical and cultural backgroundsof different language communities, in their customs and living conditions. Itstands to reason that the natives of a tropical island can hardly be impressedby the statement that something is «as white as snow». The reported«cooling» in the relations between two friends may be understood as awelcome development by the people who live in a very hot climate.
It seemsimperative, therefore, that translation should involve a kind of pragmaticadaptation to provide for the preservation of the original communicativeeffect. This adaptation must ensure that the text of translation conveys thesame attitude to the reported facts as does the original text. It goes withoutsaying that in an adequate translation the comical should not be replaced bythe tragical or a praise turned into a censure.
The pragmaticadaptation of the translation must also see to it that TR understands theimplications of the message and is aware of its figurative or situationalmeaning. A phrase like «Smith made another touchdown in threeminutes» refers to a situation which does not mean anything to a RussianReceptor who does not know anything about the rules of American football. Whenthe English original just refers to the First Amendment, the Russiantranslation should make it more explicit by speaking about the First Amendmentto the U. S. Constitution; otherwise TR will not understand what it is allabout. [12; 97]
It is obviousthat there can be no equivalence if the original text is clear and unequivocalwhile its translation is obscure and hard to understand.
Discussing theproblem of equivalence at different levels, we have emphasized the necessity ofmaking the translation as understandable and intelligible as the original textis. We have also taken care to include in the overall meaning of the text allits emotional, figurative and associative implications. The pragmaticadaptation of this kind is an integral part of translation procedures whichensure the necessary level of equivalence.
The pragmaticsof the text, which are linguistically relevant and depend on the relationshipsbetween the linguistic signs and language users, are part of the contents ofthe text. It is a meaningful element whose preservation in translation isdesirable at any level of equivalence. It is reproduced in translation if TRgets the whole information about the pragmatic aspects of the original text andthe pragmatics of the original text are just as accessible and understandableto him as they are to SR. This does not imply that he will be actuallyinfluenced by this information or react to it in the same way. [11; 55]
Apart from thepragmatics of linguistic signs, there are also the pragmatics of individualspeech acts. In a concrete act of speech the Source has to do with the specificReceptor upon whom he tries to produce the desired effect, and from whom hewould like to elicit the desired reaction.
This secondtype of pragmatics is also present in translation events. A translation eventis a kind of speech act and it is performed with a certain pragmatic purpose aswell. But here we are confronted with a more complicated process than inordinary speech.
A translationevent is pragmatically oriented in two directions. On the one hand, it istranslation which means that its primary purpose is to give the closestpossible approximation to the original text. This orientation towards a foreigntext is one aspect of its pragmatics. [11; 59]
But on theother hand, a translation event is a concrete speech act in the targetlanguage. Therefore, it is not just an act of interlingual communicationbetween the Source and TR, but also an act of speech communication between theTranslator and TR. This involves two important implications. First, atranslation event may be pragmatically oriented toward a concrete TR, and,second, it is the result of the activities of a concrete translator, who mayhave some additional pragmatic motivation, may pursue some aims beside andbeyond the true reproduction of the original text.
As long astranslation is not just an exercise in producing an equivalent text in anotherlanguage but a pragmatic act under specific circumstances, its results can beassessed both in terms of its loyalty to the original and its ability toachieve the purpose for which it has been undertaken. This necessitates theintroduction of the concept of the «pragmatic value» in translation,which assesses its success in achieving this pragmatic super-purpose.
As has beenpointed out, the additional pragmatic goal of the translation event may dependeither on the particular type of TR or on the translator's designs beyond hiscall of duty as a no-nonsense transmitter of the original message.
The users ofthe translation often make judgements of its quality exclusively on its meritsas an instrument in achieving some specific aim. If in doing it, thetranslation departs from the original text, so much the worse for the latter.
Sometimes bookswritten for adults are translated for children's reading with appropriatealterations made in the course of translation. Presumably any text should bedifferently translated depending on whether it is for experts or laymen, forstaging or screening, and so on. [11; 64]
As to thespecific aims pursued by the translator, they may also bring about considerablechanges in the resulting text with no direct bearing on the original. Each translationis made in a certain pragmatic or social context, and its results are used fora number of purposes. The translator is assigned his task and paid for it bythe people for whom his work is not an end in itself but an instrument forachieving some other ends. Aware of this, the translator tries to make his workmeet these «extra-translational» requirements, introducingappropriate changes in the text of translation. Sometimes these changes areprompted by the desire to produce a certain effect on the Receptors, which hasalready been mentioned.
The specificgoal, which makes the translator modify the resulting text, often means that,for all practical purposes, he assumes an additional role and is no longer justa translator. He may set himself some propaganda or educational task, he may beparticularly interested in some part of the original and wants to make aspecial emphasis on it, he may try to impart to the Receptor his own feelingsabout the Source or the event described in the original. In pursuance of hisplans the translator may try to simplify, abridge or modify the originalmessage, deliberately reducing the degree of equivalence in his translation.
It is clearthat such cases go far beyond the inherent aspects of translation and it is notthe task of the translation theory to analyse or pass a judgement on them. Butthe translator should be aware of this possibility for it will have an impacton his strategy.
In many typesof translation any attempt by the translator to modify his text for someextra-translational purpose will be considered unprofessional conduct andseverely condemned. But there are also some other types of translation whereparticular aspects of equivalence are of little interest and often disregarded.
When a book istranslated with a view to subsequent publication in another country, it may beadapted or abridged to meet the country's stan dards for printed matter. Thetranslator may omit parts of the book or some descriptions considered tooobscene or naturalistic for publication in his country, though permissible inthe original.
In technical orother informative translations the translator or his employers may beinterested in getting the gist of the contents or the most important or novelpart of it, which may involve leaving out certain details or a combination oftranslation with brief accounts of less important parts of the original. A mostcommon feature of such translations is neglect of the stylistic and structuralpeculiarities of the original. In this case translation often borders onretelling or precis writing.
A specificinstance is consecutive interpretation where the interpreter is often set atime limit within which he is expected to report his translation no matter howlong the original speech may have been. This implies selection,generalizations, and cutting through repetitions, incidental digressions,occasional slips or excessive embellishments.
It is obviousthat in all similar cases the differences which can be revealed between theoriginal text and its translation should not be ascribed to the translator'sinefficiency or detract from the quality of his work. The pragmatic value ofsuch translations clearly compensates for their lack of equivalence. Evidentlythere are different types of translation serving different purposes.
Linguistics andtypology of texts.
By means ofanalysis the translator is to identify what type of texts needs to betranslated. The same as during the asessment of translation it is rrequired tohave a clear picture of the text type to avoid incorrect charateristics of textasessment. Typology of the texts that complies with translation process andspread for all types of texts is the reason of correct asessment oftranslation. There is a number of tries to develop such a typology of textsthat will allow to make sonclusions regarding the principles of translation orregarding the choice of special methods of translation. This fact reveals theunderstanding that the methods of translation are not only identifird by readersgroup and specification of translation.
One of the visible achievements of modernlinguistics is the impetuous development of its new branch — the linguistics ofthe text — within last decades. This new linguistic discipline, the object ofwhich is the coherent text — the completed sequence of the statements, unitedwith each other by semantic connections, has put before itself a task to statethe essence of these connections and ways of their realization, to find out thesystem of grammatical categories of the text with its substantial and formalunits, to describe the essence and organization of conditions of the humancommunication using the material of the text.
From this brief list of the purposes and tasks ofthe new trends its affinity to the theory of translation becomes clear. [12;87]
The connection between linguistics of the textstanding on the early stage of its development, and the theory of translation,first noticed Yuriy Nida. On his opinion, the theory of translation should takeinto account some common attributes of the texts, which he has named " theuniversals of discourse ". To them belong:
1). Various ways of marking of the beginning andthe end of the text;
2). Ways of marking of transitions betweeninternal divisions of the coherent text;
3). Temporary connection;
4). Spatial connections;
5). Logic relations (for example, the reason andthe consequence);
6). Identification of discourse' participants;
7). Various means of apportionment of this orthat elements for focusing on them the attention or for the emphasis;
8). Author involvement, that is, his position andhis point of view. [15; 105]
The markers of the beginning and the end of thetext include the standard formulas such as " once upon a time " (жилибыли) and " they lived happily ever after " (и стали они житьпоживать, добра наживать).
The markers of internal transitions are thetraditional ways of introduction of new divisions of the text such as “on theother hand, however… ” (однако, сдругой стороны), “ then all of a sudden..." (и вдруг), “in contrast with all this”(в отличие от всего этого) еtc.
To the markers of the temporary relations belongprepositions of time, the temporary phrases such as “ the next morning ” (наследующее утро), “all that day ” (весь день), relative times such as FuturePerfect and Past Perfect, sequence of tenses, e. g. “he said he came”, asequence of events reflected by the order of words.
Among markers of the spatial relations there arespatial prepositions such as “long way off" (далеко-далеко), “ ten mileslong” (длиной в десять миль), “it's a day's trip” (езды туда целый день).
Logic relations are marked with the help ofmodifying sentence adverbs, such as “moreover" (более), “ therefore"(поэтому), “ nevertheless” (тем не менее); conjunctions introducing subordinateclauses “if", “although", “because"; verbal forms (adverbial,gerundial), depending on the verb expressing the main event; lexical units,expressing the logic relation, such as “ he concluded" (он пришел к выводу),“he argued” (он возразил).
The markers ofthe consecutive indication on the same reviewer include personal pronouns (he,she, they), demonstrative pronouns (this, that) and synonyms (dog, animal, pet,puppy).
Participants and events can be put in front (tothe “ linguistic proscenium”) or they can be removed on a background. We usethe complex syntactic structure for this purpose, the hierarchy, with the helpof which we mark a place of the participants and events in a describedsituation.
Participation of the author can be of two types — autobiographical (real or fictitious), the marker of which is the first personpronoun, and estimating, the marker of which are the estimating lexical units:“this was an ugly scene" (это была безобразная сцена).
Characterizing pointed features as “universals ofdiscourse”, Yuriy Nida, at the same time, points out that in the differentlanguages various means are used for their expression. [16; 79]
Thus, for translation it is obviously important,how “universals of discourse" are realized in contacting with each otherlanguages during translation and the results of it for the structuring of thefinal text. Barhudarov N. S. gives the following example: “You goin' to courtthis morning? asked Jim. We had strolled over” (Мы подошли к ее забору — “Вы в суд пойдете? ”- спросил Джим). As themarker of temporary relation in English text the relative tense Past Perfect isused, but in Russian the order of sentences appropriates to the real order ofevents “Then I saw old Pancho come around the corner of the wagon"(Hemingway) (И тут вдруг старина Панчо стал огибать фургон. .) In this examplethe marker of internal transition then is represented by contextual equivalentи тут вдруг, appropriating to the stylistic norms of the given genre (thenarration is in a colloquial manner given by the story-teller). “When hearrives in Paris next week our Foreign Secretary will have to spell out ourposition” (Когда министр иностранных дел посетит на следующей неделе Париж, ондолжен будет четко изложить нашу позицию).
The order of two correfent units is changing hereduring the translation — of a name and personal pronoun, because in Russianlanguage the first pointing with the help of pronoun (such as “Когда он посетитПариж, наш министр иностранных дел..." in the given genre (the newspapertext) is unacceptable.
One of the problems of linguistics of the texttraditionally connected with the theory of translation is the actualpartitioning or the functional prospect of the sentence. Fruitful for thetheory of translation is, in particular, ascending to F. Danesh idea of athematic progression, according to which the theme cement the text, while rhemeserves for transference of new information.
Yu. V. Vannicov has developed the scheme focusedon the translation of the typology of texts. This scheme is based on 14 maintypological attributes generalizing the properties of text from the point ofview of practice of translation [4; 27]:
1). Linguistic organization;
2). Functional style;
3). Functional substyle;
4). Speech modus;
5). Dominant logic contents;
6). Subject (thematic) contents;
7). Form of speech presentation;
8). Genre differentiation;
9). Information primacy — non primacy;
10). Expressive — stylistic mentioning;
11). Basic pragmatic functions;
12). Concrete purposes;
13). Types of adequacy of the text;
14). Types of adequacy of translation.
To the linguistic organization belong oppositionsof the texts with rigid structure (scientifically technical) and with softstructure (art). This attribute also takes into account the degree of copula ofthe text. The functional styles are pointed depending on sphere ofcommunication (scientifically technical, social — business etc) [4; 28].
Typology created by Yu. V. Vannicov can be seemeda little bulky. But its dividing into parts makes it more adequate to the giventask — the reflection of real variety of the texts.
The essential advantage of this typology is thatit takes into account the presence of mixed and transitive cases as well. So,for example, Yu. V. Vannicov especially points out such functionallynon-uniform texts as informing — ordering.
So, as aconclusion to chapter one of this work, it can be said that in the result ofthe factors mentioned above, different peculiarities might be revealed duringtranslation. They are related to common features and differences betweensimilar functional styles of languages as well as to specific conditions andtasks of translation activity of this type. In the outline of each functionalstyle there are some certain peculiarities and their impact on the procedureand the way of translation are significant. Therefore, in this research workthe peculiarities of scientific-technical materials based on electric devicesmanuals are studied. In the next chapter lexical and grammatical peculiaritieshave been reviewed.
2. Lexical and grammaticalpeculiarities of scientific-technical texts
In anyscientific and technical text, irrespective of its contents and character, canbe completely precisely translated from one language to other, even if in anartwork such branch of knowledge is required, for which in language oftranslation there is no appropriate nomenclature. In such cases the interpretermore often resorts to interpretation, but becoming of a necessary nomenclatureof a realization in a sphere of production or those scientific circles, whichare engaged in data by problems.
To ensurevaluable translation, it is necessary to an interpreter to present thefollowing requests:
1. Thesubstantial acquaintance to a subject, which is treated in the original text.
2. Good enoughknowledge of language of an artwork and its lexical and grammatical features incomparison to the native language.
3. Knowledge ofthe bases' theory of translation, and also receptions of technical translationand skill to use them.
4. Legibleintroducing about the character of scientific and technical functional styleboth in language of the original, and in the native language.
5. Acquaintanceto accepted conventional signs, abbreviations (cuttings), systems of measuresand weights, both in language of the original and in the native language.
Good possessionof the native language and the right use of a nomenclature.2.1 The characteristic of thescientific and technical language
Having studiedthe material of scientific-technical texts some of the characteriscts can bedetermined:
1. The absenceof emotional colouring.
This featurebasically also causes absolute convertibility of the scientific and technicaltexts, as the reader should not have stranger associations, he should not readbetween lines, be admired by the game of words and calamburs. The writer'spurpose of the text is to describe either or other phenomenon or operation,this or that subject or process.
It is necessaryto mark, that the English language differs by figurativeness, which cannot betransferred to Russian translation.
E. g. “Themother company bore a daughter in the Far East, granted her a dowry of2.000.000 pounds and christened her…”
If to translateliterally, it will sound so:
«Компания мать родила наДальнем Востоке дочь, дала ей приданное в 2 млн. фунтов стерлингов и окрестилаее…»
After processing is obtained:
«Эта компания организовалана Дальнем Востоке дочернюю компанию и выделила ей капитал в 2 млн. фунтовстерлингов; новая компания стала именоваться…»
2.rushing toclearness and shortness.
The rushing toclearness discovers expression in application of legible grammar constructionsand lexical units, and also in the wide use of a nomenclature. As a rule, theplaced terms will be utilized conventional,, though meet and terminoids (terms,having circulation in a narrow orb), which considerably hamper translation. Therushing to a multiplicity expresses in wide application of infinitive,gerundial and subordinate clauses, abbreviations (cuttings) and conventionalsigns.
3. The specialsemantic load of some words of ordinary colloquial speech.
The rethinkingof words of ordinary speech is one of productive methods of the new terms'construction.
E. g. to putout — in ordinary speech «гасить огонь», but for sailors — «выходить в море»
Stroke — inordinary speech «удар», but for mechanic — «ход поршня»
Hoe — «мотыга», but for builders — «обратная лопата»
This propertyof words is an especially dangerous source of difficulties and errors for aninitial translator.
4. Rate,distinct from literary language, of the words' use of the basic dictionaryfund. The lexicon of the scientific and technical literature is much poorerthan lexicon of art products. Therefore rate of separate elements of commonlexicon of the scientific and technical literature is higher than rate ofelements of lexicon of art products, thus the literary — book words andexpressions, foreign drawings, scarcity of portable and contextual meaningstreat to characteristic features of scientific and technical style.
5. Distinctionfrom the literary language rate of the use and relative importance of somegrammar shapes and constructions.
In theengineering literature Passive Voice is used in 16 times more often, than inart. The definition in the engineering literature is used in 3 times moreoften, than in art.
6. Scarcity ofthe idioms' use.
The idiomaticword collocations are original irresolvable expressions having particularsense, frequently independent from elements, included in them. The idiomsalways have some emotional colouring and consequently are not entered in thescientific and technical texts.
7. Applicationof abbreviations (cuttings) and conventional signs.
About somefeatures of language of the scientific and technical literature and techniqueof tutoring translation.
Concept "the scientific and technical literature " combines, as is known differentkinds of literature; the monographs, different textbooks, journal papers,descriptions, quick references. These aspects of the scientific and technicalliterature differ on language. In scientific and technical operations thematerial is stated briefly, exact and logically and at the same time completelyenough and demonstrative. For all aspects of the scientific and technicalliterature is present much common, as enables to speak about common lexical andgrammar features of the scientific and technical literature [17; 49].
The lexicon ofthe scientific and technical literature consists of common words and great manyof the special terms.
One part ofcommon words such as to work, to know, place, new is known for the pupil fromschool or other original course of the English language.
Other part ofcommon words is unknown by the pupil and represents that basic lexical reserve,which they should acquire in learning process. This part of common words canconditionally be subdivided on some groups:
Words used inthe scientific and technical literature in meanings, distinct from what pupilshave acquired in original course. For example verb to offer in thescientific text more often is used in value «оказывать», instead of«предлагать».
To same groupit is necessary to refer and some auxiliary words such as for, as, since,after. A feature of these words is that they can execute functions ofdifferent parts of speech. For example word for can be a preposition andconjunction, and is translated as «для», «в течение», andas a conjunction «так как».
Words, which onthe first stage of tutoring usually are not studied.
E. g. to regard — рассматривать, считать.
to design — конструировать.
Here it isnecessary to refer a great many of auxiliary words, not studied before,«on account of» — из-за, “due to “ — благодаря.
Words andword-combinations providing logical connections between separate parts of thetext and providing the logic of an account.
E. g. to beginwith — прежде всего
Furthermore — кроме того
Summing up — говоря вкратце
Word and wordcombinations serving for relational expression of the writer to the statedfacts or for clarification of these facts.
E. g. needless to say — невызывает сомнения
strictlyspeaking — строго говоря
The meanings ofsuch words should be learnt.
Phraseologicalword combinations.
The feature ofphraseological word combinations used in the scientific and technicalliterature is that they more or less neutral on colouring.
E. g. to be ina position — быть в состоянии
to be under way- осуществляться
to bring intoaction — начинать действавать
Phraseologicalword combinations play the important role in the offer and they are necessaryfor knowing.
The secondstratum of the scientific and technical literature are the terms.
E. g. guidance- наведение
combustionchamber — камера сгорания
force ofgravity — сила тяжести
If the expertwell knows Russian nomenclature, having met in the text the unfamiliar term, hecan guess without the dictionary by what appropriate Russian term is necessaryto translate.
The greatestdifficulty for understanding and translation is represented by the termsconsisting not of one word, but from group of words. Disclosure of theirmeanings requires (demands) particular sequence of operations and knowledge ofa method of translation of separate components. It is possible to recommend tostart translation from the last word. Then under the order on the right to theleft to translate words, facing to it, taking into account the semanticrelations between the components.
E. g. If wetranslate the term «liquid-propellant power plant» — first of all itshould be translated «power plant» — силовая установка, and then“propellant" — топливо, and the last word is “liquid" — жидкий. Andwe can easily translate the whole word combination:
«Силоваяустановка на жидком топливе»
It is necessaryto take into account that many terms are polysemantic.
E. g. stage — in radiotechnics has several meanings:
Каскад;
2. Фаза, стадия
And in therocket engineering — ступень ракеты.
Thus summingup, it is necessary to underscore, that the mastering of a strictly select andrather restricted amount of words enables the specialist to read the scientificand technical literature, not reverting to common English-Russian language andusing only by special dictionaries. Some more examples are submitted in theAppendix 1.2.2 Analysis of terminology inscientific-technical style
The purpose ofscience as a branch of human activity is to disclose by research the innersubstance of things and phenomena of objective reality and find out the lawsregulating them, thus enabling man to predict, control and direct their futuredevelopment in order to improve the material and social life of mankind. Thestyle of scientific prose is therefore mainly characterized by an arrangementof language means which will bring proofs to clinch a theory. The main functionof scientific prose is proof. The selection of language means must thereforemeet this principle requirement.
The genre ofscientific works is mostly characteristic of the written form of language(scientific articles, monographs or textbooks), but it may also be found in itsoral form (in scientific reports, lectures, discussions at conferences, etc);in the latter case this style has some features of colloquial speech.
The language ofscience is governed by the aim of the functional style of scientific prose,which is to prove a hypothesis, to create new concepts, to disclose theinternal laws of existence, development, relations between different phenomena,etc. The language means used, therefore, tend to be objective, precise,unemotional, and devoid of any individuality; there is a striving for the mostgeneralized form of expression.
The first andmost noticeable feature of this style is the logical sequence of utteranceswith clear indication of their interrelations and interdependence, that is whyin no other functional style there is such a developed and varied system ofconnectives as in scientific prose. The most frequently words used inscientific text are functional words; conjunctions and prepositions.
The first 100most frequent words of this style comprises the following units:
a)prepositions: of, to, in, for, with, on, at, by, from, out, about, down;
b)prepositional phrases: in terms of; in view of, in spite of, in common with, onbehalf of, as a result of; by means of, on the ground of, in case of;
c)conjunctional phrases: in order that, in case that, in spite of the fact that,on the ground that, for fear that;
d) pronouns:one, it, we, they;
e) notionalwords: people, time, two, like, man, made, years.
As scientifictext is restricted to formal situations and, consequently, to formal style, itemploys a special vocabulary which consists of two main groups: wordsassociated with professional communication and a less exclusive group ofso-called learned words. Here one can find numerous words that are used inscientific text and can be identified by their dry, matter-of-fact flavour, forexample, comprise, compile, experimental, heterogeneous, homogeneous,conclusive, divergent, etc. Another group of learned word comprises mostlypolysyllabic words drawn from the Romance languages and, though fully adaptedto the English phonetic system, some of them continue to sound singularlyforeign. Their very sound seems to create complex associations: deleterious, emollient,incommodious, meditation, illusionary.
A particularlyimportant aspect of scientific and technological language is thesubject-neutral vocabulary which cuts across different specialized domains. Inparticular, a great deal of scientific work involves giving instructions to actin a certain way, or reporting on the consequences of having so acted.
Several lexicalcategories can be identified within the language of scientific instruction andnarrative:
Verbs ofexposition: ascertain, assume, compare, construct, describe, determine,estimate, examine, explain, label, plot, record, test, verify.
Verbs ofwarning and advising: avoid, check, ensure, notice, prevent, remember, takecare; also several negative items: not drop, not spill.
Verbs ofmanipulation: adjust, align, assemble, begin, boil, clamp, connect, cover,decrease, dilute, extract, fill, immerse, mix, prepare, release, rotate, switchon, take, weigh.
Adjectivalmodifiers and their related adverbs: careful (y), clockwise, continuous (ly),final (ly), gradual (ly), moderate (ly), periodic (ally), secure (ly),subsequent (ly), vertical (ly) (see Appendix 1).
The generalvocabulary employed in scientific text bears its direct referential meaning,that is, words used in scientific text will always tend to be used in theirprimary logical meaning. Hardly a single word will be found here which is usedin more than one meaning. Nor will there be any words with contextual meaning.Even the possibility of ambiguity is avoided.
Likewise neutraland common literary words used in scientific text will be explained, even iftheir meaning is slightly modified, either in the context or in a foot-note bya parenthesis, or an attributive phrase.
A second and noless important feature and, probably, the most conspicuous, is the use of termsspecific to each given branch of science. Due to the rapid dissemination ofscientific and technical ideas, particularly in the exact sciences, somescientific and technical terms begin to circulate outside the narrow field theybelong to and eventually begin to develop new meanings. But the overwhelmingmajority of terms do not undergo this process of de-terminization and remainthe property of scientific text. There they are born, develop newterminological meanings and there they die. No other field of human activity isso prolific in coining new words as science is. The necessity to penetratedeeper into the essence of things and phenomena gives rise to new concepts,which require new words to name them. A term will make more direct reference tosomething than a descriptive explanation, non-term. Furthermore, terms arecoined so as to be self-explanatory to the greatest possible degree.
Conclusion
The translationis the multifaceted phenomenon and some aspects of it can be the subjects ofthe research of different sciences. In the frames of the science of translationpsychological, literature critical, ethnographical and other points oftranslation as well as the history of translation in one or other country arebeing studied. According to the subject of research we use the knowledge of thepsychology of translation, the theory of art and literary translation,ethnographical science of translation, historical science of translation and soon. The main place in the modern translation belongs to linguistic translation,which studies the translation as linguistic phenomenon. The different kinds oftranslation complement each other and strive to detailed description of theactivity of the translation.
The theory oftranslation puts forward the following tasks:
1. To open anddescribe the common linguistic basis of translation, that is to show whichpeculiarities of linguistic systems and regularities of the language operationare the basis of the translating process, make this process possible anddetermine its character and borders;
2. To determinethe translation as the subject of the linguistic research, to show itsdifference from the other kinds of linguistic mediation;
3. To work outthe basis of classification of kinds of the translating activity;
4. To open theessence of the translating equivalence as the basis of the communicativeidentity of the original texts and the translation;
5. To work outthe common principles and the peculiarities of construction of the peculiar andspecial translation theories for the different combinations of languages;
6. To work outthe common principles of the scientific description of the translation processas actions of a translator of transforming the original text to the translatingtext;
7. To open theinfluence on the translating process of pragmatic and social linguisticfactors;
8. To determinethe idea “the translating norm” and to work out the principles.
In the resultof this research it can be concluded that the main stylistic feature ofscientific-technical texts is exact and clear interpertation of the materialwithout any expressive elements that make the speech more emotionallysaturated. There are almost no metaphors, metonomy transpositions and otherstylistic features in sciectific-technical literature while they are widelyused in literary works.
Althoughscientific texts is far from live coloquim language, it contains a number ofneuteral phraseological units of technical specific. Main requirements forscientific-technical translation to comply with are precision (all items in STshall be reflected in translation), conciseness (all items of ST shall betranslated laconically), clearness (conciseness and laconism of TL shall notmess the lexics, its understanding), literarity (the text of the translationshall comply with common norms of literary language without use of sintacticalstructures of source language).
During theresearch it also can be revealed that common features of scientific-technicaltexts are:
1) saturationwith specific terms and terminology units;
2) presence ofgrammatical and lexical structures;
3) differencein use of analogue stylistic features in SL and TL;
4) differentuse frequency of certain speech parts.
All terms areunited into terminology systems that express notions of technics and science.The difficulties that appear during the translation of the terms are connectedto imperfection of existing terminology systems. The most important among themare the phenomena of terminology sinonyms, omonyms and polisemantic units. Allof this leads to the approach of context translation that is:
identifying ofthe word meaning due to its context;
selection ofthe proper context equivalent term;
creation ofadequate text by means of selected context equivalent term.
The translationof scientific-technical texts shall give an exact meaning of the source text.Some deviations can be made due to the peculiarities of target language or stylisticissue. It is very important to prevent the loss of meaningful informationcontained in the source text.
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