CoursePaper
LINGUISTICAND SOCIO-CULTURAL PECULIARITIES OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
CONTENTS
Introduction
Characteristics ofbusiness communication
Socio-culturalissues of business communication
Business communication as across-cultural issue
Peculiarities of unofficial businesscommunication
Specific patterns of problematicinteraction
Linguisticfeatures of business communication
Content and Structure
Language
Peculiarities of delivery
Conclusion
List of References
Introduction
«Effective communication needs to bebuilt around this simple foundation and realization: communication is adialogue, not a monologue. In fact, communication is more concerned with a duallistening process.» — Dr. Heinz Goldmann, Chair, Heinz GoldmannInternational Foundation for Executive Communications, Geneva.
Business communication has a long history,stretching back tothe origins of rhetoric as a scholarly endeavourand, even further,back to the origins of business practice. Today,business communicationexists as an academic fieldthatemphasizes research in this sphere, aiming at raising its effectiveness.Different domains of business communication have been researched by F.Briggs, R.D. Clarke, S.R. Covey, L.Ekroth, L.Ferrer, E.Shriberg, T.K.Gamble, M.Gamble, N.Gerber, R.I.Gesher, M.D.Winer, C.B.Gussenhoven, G.Harper, D.House, B.Lampton, A.Lieb, N.Payne, N.Qubein, L.Ramsey, A.Taylor, T.Rosegrant, A.Meyer, B.T.Samples, A.Thompson, A.J.Vasile,H.K.Mintz and many others. Inthe focus of their attention are such issues as studying the peculiarities of officialand unofficial business communication, dealing with specific problems inbusiness interaction, examining the content and structure of businesspresentations, and developing general guidelines of effective delivery.
Grounding on the results of previousresearches, this paper presents an attempt to give an overview of contemporaryachievements in the theory and practice of raising the effectiveness of businesscommunication from the linguistic and socio-cultural viewpoint. The workconsists of the introduction, two sections of the main part, conclusion and thelist of references.
Characteristics ofbusiness communication
Communication is important in the worksituation, which for most people is within an organization, a complex systemthat intentionally coordinates the behaviours of its members to meet certaingoals. Communication channels follow both the formal and informal organizationstructures.
Organizational communication can take differentforms. Some messages are written down, although certainly not all of them.Also, informal channels can be used.
A problem for many people at work is theneed to communicate in an assertive manner. Assertive communication involvesinternalizing positive attitudes regarding one's rights and specificcommunication behaviours, including, persistence, a workable compromise, use offeedback, appropriate self-disclosure, fogging, negative assertion, andnegative inquiry.[1]
Socio-cultural issues of business communication Business communication as a cross-cultural issue
On the one hand, «every communicationis a cross-cultural communication» (i.e., coloured and influenced by eachperson's unique life experience.), as Larry Axelrod and Roy Johnson state in theirbook, Turning Conflict Into Profit.[2]
On the other hand, advances in transportand communications technology combined with the development of a world economyhave resulted in people from different nations, cultures, languages andbackgrounds now communicating, meeting and doing business with one another morethan ever. As we come together our cultural differences become accentuated aswe start to realise that the rest of the world is not reading from the samebook. One area where this is now being felt is in business.[3]
Today some of the world's largest economiesinclude Japan, China, Mexico, Brazil, India and Korea. As a result, doingbusiness across borders (whether political, religious, cultural or linguistic)requires cultural sensitivity, meaning a sense of empathy, flexibility andcreativity informed by cultural knowledge. Western organisations are feelingthe impact that a lack of cultural sensitivity can and does have upon businessperformance. Many organisations are now investing heavily in culturalsensitivity training to address issues such as etiquette, protocol,communication styles and negotiation approaches. In a competitive world suchbusinesses appreciate that greater cultural sensitivity will assist them inforging longer and more prosperous relationships.
A lack of cultural sensitivity can lead acompany, individual or product to failure. This is reflected in two simplecategories: culture and language.
Culture comes in many shapes and sizes,including areas such as politics, history, faith, mentality, behaviour andlifestyle. The lack of cultural awareness may harm a business. For example, agolf ball manufacturing company used to package golf balls in packs of four forconvenient purchase. However, a failure of their sales in Japan made the company repackage the product because in the Japanese culture the number 4 is consideredunlucky (equivalent to the number 13 in western cultures) due to its soundinglike the word «death».
Business communication can also be damagedby poor translation due to the lack of cultural sensitivity. For instance, IKEAonce tried to sell a workbench called «fartfull» — not a hugelypopular product for obvious reasons.
The cited examples could easily have beenavoided by conducting some basic research in respect to checking the concept,design, shape, colour, packaging, message or name in the target culture. Ifbusinesses want to succeed internationally, cultural sensitivity must be at theheart of everything they do; from their personal interaction and relationshipswith clients to the products/services they develop. Peculiarities ofunofficial business communication
During the work time, the employeesencounter the boss as the source of discipline, assignments, occasionalreprimands and, typically, very little personal conversation, while an informalsetting is meant to favour positive relationships in the workplace. The employeestypically like to be around the supervisor who showcases humour, asks about theirfamilies and hobbies, and gives an unrestrained laugh.
However, the social scene does not erasethe workplace lines of authority. There are certain peculiarities ofafter-hours communication,[4] as theafter-hours conduct may have a direct bearing on the business future.
Kinesics isrestricted. Any touching, other than a handshake greeting or dancing with thegroup, is unwelcome.
The main purpose of a social event is tofoster the good will, to bring together co-workers and colleagues for a bit ofcamaraderie and some well-deserved recognition.[5]This makes it necessary for people to circulate among everyone present, notjust the equals they feel most comfortable with, and stay long enough to interactwith as many associates as possible, especially the key people. However, itis supposed that all of the company leave before the party time has elapsed inorder not to be thought of as part of the clean-up crew.
Having an idea what to talk about may becritical. Therefore inappropriate humour is normally avoided, no matterhow informal the setting is. Although people might laugh, it can happen they doso either out of courtesy or from discomfort. In fact such humour couldjeopardize one's professional reputation.
The informal gathering does not welcome"shop talk", that is opinions about a five year plan, a dropin sales or the employee that had to be fired. Instead, people tend todemonstrate that they have an interesting, meaningful life away from thecorporation: the unofficial conversations are focused on major sporting events,releases of new movies, great places to go on vacation, new restaurants,bestselling books and national events.
In his book The 7 Habits of HighlyEffective People, Stephen Covey titled one of the chapters «Seek first tounderstand, and then to be understood.»[6]Accordingly, «motormouths» who dominate conversations are unpopular.On the contrary, it is common to allow other people to talk. For thisreason, open-ended questions, often planned ahead, are prevalent. The bestconversation starter begins with «tell me about...» and then, encouragingothers to go on talking, one may use comments like «Very interesting,»«Tell me more,» and «What happened next?»
Moderation in eating and drinking, withspecial attention to the table etiquette, is an important issue, aspeople are there for the fellowship, not for the food. A social event is anopportunity to build business relationships and to promote oneself. Therefore,any mentioning of the importance of drinking should be avoided, even that atthe end of the day «to help one unwind.» Furthermore, frequentreference to the topic itself, leaving alone the impaired speaking and unsteadywalk following the extra cocktails, can label one: «lush,» «adrunk,» «undisciplined,» or something similar, which often leadsto ruining the carer.Specific patterns ofproblematic interaction
There are situations which can injure theintegrity of the conversation by blocking its flow, creating frustration, andreducing understanding and satisfaction. These apply to most social and muchbusiness conversation. The most common communication problems are thefollowing.[7]
Some professionals suffer from theoccupational hazard of talking too much – professors, clergy, speakersand trainers, and others who are paid to talk for a living. Involved in theirown monologues, going on and on without giving the others their turn, suchpeople soon frustrate others, losing the involvement of the listeners.
Another hazard arises when a talker beginsa topic and the listener grabs it away and opens a «me-centred»monologue. Thus the initiator of the topic is unable to complete his or herthought. This is very frustrating, and eventually such behaviour, which iscalled the «take-away» and «me-too» syndrome, drivespeople away.
Unsolicited advice. Some people are quick to give advice as soon as the other personmentions a problem, intruding with «Have you thought of...?» or«Why don't you...?» Men seem especially prone to this tendency,although women are not immune from it. It is also prevalent among«professional know-it-alls» such as teachers, managers,administrators, and some lawyers, ministers, and counsellors. The advice-giverassumes the authority or even parenting role, and that can be off-putting. Itis considered more appropriate to let the person finish and then, perhaps, toask «Are you asking for my opinion?» or «What alternatives haveyou thought of?»
Interruptingcan also be very annoying when a person is breaking in before the interlocutorhas completed the thought. Usually this is done because the interrupting peopleare impatient and are afraid of not getting their thoughts expressed. Many suchsituations occur on TV interviews when the host has guests with opposing views.The guests butt in, over-talk, even shout in order to get in their words.According to some producers, this makes for exciting television, while many observersfind it irritating.
Contradicting is the ultimate conversation-blocker. Although great in structureddebate, direct disagreement («I disagree with you» or the moregingerly «Yes, but») is not helpful in conversation, which is at itsbest when it is mutual and collaborative. Instead of the «I'm right,you're wrong» game, it is considered better to hear out the point of viewbeing expressed, check the understanding, and then offer «My view isdifferent from yours. Let me explain.» People who feel heard andunderstood are more likely to hear and understand someone expressing adifferent view.
Stingy contributors. This describes the people who listen, take and receive, but contributelittle enthusiasm, information, self-disclosure, acknowledgement, complimentsor other elements that lift a conversation. They like to «pick thebrains» of others who share personal experiences, but give nothing inreturn, remain cool and contained with personal matters. This cautious,ungenerous style causes an out-of-balance conversation in which real trust cannever exist.
Exhibiting one or more of the abovementioned communication patterns in a conversation makes one's interlocutorfrustrated or annoyed. With heightened awareness, these mistakes can beavoided, and eliminating them from one's repertoire can reduce the interactionproblems.
Linguistic featuresof business communication Content and Structure
Business communication presupposes speakingin a public situation, so its effectiveness much depends of the general rulesof public speaking. The study of public speaking is guided by one overridingprinciple: what is effective depends on the speaker, the situation, and thelisteners.
Preparation for speaking in public beginswith establishing a goal. The choice of the topic is usually determined by thereason for giving the speech. The topic should always be related to goals. Thefirst step in goal setting is to determine the general purpose of the speech.General purposes include informing, entertaining, and persuading. Next, aspeaker establishes a specific purpose. Establishing a specific purposeinvolves answering the question, «What exactly do I want my audience todo, think, or feel when I am finished speaking?» The third step in goalsetting is audience analysis. Answers to six specific questions can helpdetermine what information you need about the audience[8]: (1) What do they already know about thetopic? (2) What is their specific interest in it? (3) What are their attitudesand feelings about the thesis and purpose? (4) About the speaker? (5) Aboutrelated subjects and issues? (6) How will the situation affect the speech?Answering the questions sometimes simply involves asking a few people; in othercases it requires inferring from demographic data. A good speaker will continueto use feedback from listeners while talking. What the speaker learned mayrequire a revision of the purpose.
Next the speaker states the thesis, whichis a subject-centred statement: it is a single sentence summary of the speech.A thesis is the main point or central idea of the speech. Developing a thesisrequires organizing. Organizing thoughts involves outlining the speech,choosing two, three, or four main points that will be used to develop orsupport the theses. Several standard plans for choosing main ideas are the timepattern, the space pattern, and three specific topical patterns. Afterselecting main points, the speaker arranges them, using audience analysis. Witha deductive structure, the thesis is stated early in the speech. With aninductive structure, the thesis is withheld until midway through or at the endof the speech.
Finally, main points are developed with sub-pointsand supporting materials and the speaker prepares the introduction and theconclusion. An introduction needs to get the listeners' favourable attentionand to begin pointing their thoughts toward the subject of the speech.Introductions may use several techniques: humour, serious illustrations,quotations, questions, a startling statement or statistic, or in somesituations direct reference to audience, occasion, or subject. A conclusionshould refocus listeners thinking on the thesis and leave them in anappropriate mood. Techniques for conclusions are the same as those forintroductions, with the addition of a summary. Combining one of the techniques witha summary is recommended, especially for informative speeches. Relatingconclusion to introduction can also give a speech unity.Language
Communicating effectively requires sharedmeaning between communicators. Meaning refers to the entire set of reactionspeople assign to symbols. Meanings are not directly related to the symbols thatstand for them, though it is a common knowledge that words have meanings. Onthe contrary, it is people who have the meanings: only the user connects asymbol to the meanings it calls up.
Words are symbols people use to representconcepts, and concepts are the ideas people have to explain their experiences.People develop concepts by synthesizing, or combining, the mental images ofexperience into ideas. This is called conceptualizing, and to do it, peoplemust be able to abstract. Abstraction refers to the process of selecting anelement from a reality to distinguish it from other elements. In abstracting,people develop a category system of concepts. The complexity of a categorysystem depends on the number of features on which a person can focus about anyreality.
To use a category system to identifyrealities, people have to exclude some things. Whatever is said or whateverideas are thought about any reality, some things are not said or not thought.Words also reflect different levels of meaning or abstraction. Concepts, andthus words, vary from specific to general, and the higher the level ofabstractness, the more ambiguous words become.
The more possible things a word can beapplied to, the more possible misunderstandings can occur in communicating.When the term abstract is applied to words, it refers to features of a conceptthat cannot be seen. The word concrete refers to features that are specific andcan be seen.
Words also represent different types ofmeanings. Denotative meanings are the actual objects or concepts referred to;connotative meanings are the values people attach to the concept—a negative orpositive reaction to the symbol itself or to the thing or experience the symbolstands for.
Communicators also share the system inwhich symbols are used. Language is described as a symbolic system involvingverbal and nonverbal, vocal and nonvocal symbols. Grammar is what makeslanguage systematic. Grammar consists of the rules of word arrangement andinflections that make individual words useful. Knowing grammar helps peopleinterpret word relationships and word and sentence meanings.
Each language system has differences ofdialect and style. A dialect is a language variant used by a group of speakersthat is different from the language of the general community. Dialects may beethnic, geographical, or social, and they involve differences in word choices,grammar, and sound. Dialects influence communication because they activate anybiases communicators have in favour of or against the group or community withwhich they identify the dialect. Style differences are primarily related to thedegree of formality in language use. Styles vary according to situations aswell as the relationships among the communicators. There are five styles offormality: frozen, formal, consultative, casual, and intimate.[9]
All the above stated is important from theviewpoint of the listener: a speaker, in order to be accepted and properlyunderstood, needs to consider the audience and speak their language.[10] Peculiarities of delivery
Through verbal communication, people learnabout others' thoughts, ideas, products, and services. However, often how wesay things conveys more meaning than what we say. In fact, voice quality issaid to convey about 38% of the meaning.[11]The accent may give away one's national or regional origin. The tone of voicewill tell people whether the talker feels elated or sad, excited or bored. One'sinvolvement — the true feelings and attitudes — is often sent by means of thevocal and physical cues, and sometimes a speaker may send conflicting messagesthrough different channels: words, body, face, and tone.
As it is known, about 93% of communicationis non-verbal.[12] Much ofit is unconscious, but a great deal of a wordless message can be consciouslycontrolled. We convey feelings, moods and attitudes through a variety ofintonation parameters, such as, volume, speed or pace, stress and some others. Ifmotivated, anyone can become steadily more conscious of others' needs,feelings, and messages by intentionally growing the communication skill ofawareness. For instance, in order to make the presentation interesting, aspeaker will change the delivery, however not to obviously, e.g.: speed orpitch of voice.
Someintonation patterns may be completely colourless in meaning: they give to thelistener no implication of the speaker's attitude or feeling. They serve a mechanicalfunction – they provide a matrix into which all sentences may be poured so thatthey achieve utterance. Such intonation patterns represent the intonationalminimum of speech.[13]
Thedistinctive function of intonation is realized in the opposition of the sameword sequences which differ in certain parameters of the intonation pattern. Itis difficult to classify all the fine shades of feeling and attitude which canbe conveyed by slight changes in pitch, by increasing or decreasing theloudness of the voice, by changing its quality, and in various other ways. Onthe other hand, it is quite possible to make a broad classification ofintonation patterns which change the meaning of theutterance. Applied tointonation it can be of the greatest service in guiding speakers in the correctuse of the tones and accents.[14]Pitch
Vocal pitch,the highness or lowness of the voice on a musical scale, is an extremelyimportant variable in communication. Since variety contributes to attention,the natural variety of pitch is desirable in business communication.
Differentcombinations of pitch sections (pre-heads, heads and nuclei) may result in morethan one hundred pitch-and-stress patterns, but they all convey the mostgeneral meaning expressed by the nucleus itself, and different pitch sections(pre-heads or heads) either add some additional attitudinal meanings to thepatterns or intensify them. Broadly speaking, any sentence type can be linkedwith any tone group and the particular meaning of every pattern occurs only ina certain context and with reference to a particular style and type of speech. [15]
We tend toidentify higher pitches with female voices and lower pitches with male voices.We also learn vocal stereotypes specific to this or that culture. We associatelow-pitched voices with strength, sexiness, and maturity and high-pitchedvoices with helplessness, tenseness, and nervousness.[16]
The pitch ofthe voice is very difficult to control without practice, and this makes it ahighly accurate verbal indicator of how a speaker feels about the subject he orshe is presenting. In most western cultures listenersnormally impute strength and confidence to the person who speaks with alow-pitched, well-modulated voice. When the speaker's voice rises to a highpitch, listeners attribute it to excitement, panic, and lack of control.[17] So, if a speaker slows down and uses thelower end of the voice range, he or she is perceived as calm, confident andcompetent. We can varythe pitch with which we talk by changing the tightness of the vocal folds, thepressure with which we exhale air, and, to a limited extent, the elasticity ofour vocal folds.
The hardesttime to control the pitch of the voice is at the beginning of the speech. Most presenters– whether novices or experts – begin their speeches at a higher that normalpitch because the stress they are experiencing tenses and tightens their vocalcords so that they vibrate at a higher frequency. With relaxation, the vocalcords relax and assume their normal tension.[18]
However, if aspeaker is excited or passionate about his subject, he or she will likely havedifficulty masking the emotions – and the pitch of the voice will be raised. Ahigh pitch indicates emotional engagement. If you're also speaking quickly, thecombination usually indicates your stress level is elevated. Although you mayworry that you sound nervous or anxious, the audience will interpret theintonation shifts as vocal prompts.
As tension usuallytightens the vocal folds, raising the pitch and causing problems for presenters,women speakers particularly need to be cautious about pitch, since tension canincrease their pitch to unpleasant levels, thus reducing their effectiveness asspeakers.
In businesscommunication one must also remember that a person whose pitch is too high, toolow, or monotonous (on the same level) may not only transmit a negativeimpression when communicating, but risk losing customers completely. Someindividuals, however, overuse one tone to the exclusion of all others. Theyhave monotonous or monotone voices, which are characterized by having toolittle variety in pitch. Other individuals speak toward the upper end of theirpitch scale, producing very fragile, unsupported tones.[19] Nervousness can givethe sentences a rising intonation, with each one sounding like a question in aforced, unsynchronized over-inflection that results in a bewildering melody.[20]
Anotherproblem for some speakers is a habitual and repeated pitch pattern. A regularrising and falling pitch pattern is often described as speaking in a«sing-song» manner. Not only is this pattern unnatural, it quicklybecomes boring.[21]
As AnnThompson summarizes, «There is an important observation about voice pitch.Voices that are normally pitched in a low or middle range have much bettercarrying power than high-pitched voices. Besides, the higher the pitch, themore effort the speaker must exert to be heard. As a matter of generalpractice, a speaker should try to keep voice pitch to a middle range, exceptfor a change of pitch to emphasize meaning. The relaxation of tension forspeaker and audience is immediate. An audience finds a high-pitched voiceirritating and, more often than not, turns the sound off».[22]
The range between high and low pitch variesfrom individual to individual, and from one linguistic population to another.International speakers should be aware of the fact that the English generallyhave a greater range than Americans do.Sentence stress
Depending onthe situation or context, in a sentence or an intonation group some of thewords are of greater importance than the others. Words which provide most ofthe information are brought out in speech by means of sentence-stress: aspecial prominence given to one or more words according to their relativeimportance in a sentence.[23]
The mainfunction of sentence stress is to single out the communicative centre of thesentence which introduces new information.[24]The prominence is realized by variations of pitch, force, length and quality.The syllables of the words marked by sentence-stress are pronounced with possiblechanges in pitch, greater force, greater length of vowels and their fullquality, that is the stressed words are pronounced more distinctly. The mostprominent part of a sentence is the last stressed word which takes the nucleartone. The second in weight is the first stressed word which often has thehighest pitch and is fairly loud.
Thedistribution of stresses in a sentence depends on the semantic value of wordsand is closely connected with the lexical and grammatical structure of thesentence. The ability to move smoothly and steadily from one stress to the nextand to fit in the unstressed syllables between them forms the basis of anatural English accent.
Stress shiftplays a crucial role in the delivery conveying subtle shades of meaning. The samesentence can demonstrate various degrees of curiosity, impatience, or sarcasm. Rate
Anapplication of the general sense of this term in Phoneticsand Phonology is to refer to speed of speaking;alternatively known as tempo.[25] Languages and people vary in their overall rate of articulation (measuredin such terms as syllables per second, words per minute, incidence of pauses). Withina given norm, however, it is possible to vary one's rate for particular semantic orsocial effects, e.g. the 'meditative' sense of we-e-ll, produced very slowly.
The rate ofspeech can be normal, slow and fast. The parts of the utterance which areparticularly important sound slower. Unimportant parts are commonly pronouncedat a greater speed than normal.
The rate orspeed at which a speech is delivered can indicate to the audience how thespeaker feels about his material. A deliberate, plodding delivery oftenindicates solemnity or seriousness; a quickened pace suggests urgency orenthusiasm. Of course, speed of delivery varies from speaker to speaker, butmost North Americans speak at a rate of around 160 words per minute.[26]
Varying thedelivery speed of different parts of a speech help to highlight the main ideasand influence listeners' subconscious interpretation of the message. Amodulated delivery is less predictable, and can hold the listeners' interest byrequiring them to actively vary their responses.
Forlisteners, an average speaking rate of from 140 to 170 words a minute allowsthem time to digest the words of a speech. There can, however, be no fixed rateof delivery that applies to every speaker. Nor should the rate of delivery beuniform throughout a speech. Emotional moments in a speech seem morespontaneous if the words rush out. Deliberative moments, when a new idea isbeing considered or a conclusion stated, should be presented more slowly.Highly charged moments, as for instance memorable words at the end of a speech,should be delivered slowly and impressively.[27]
If a speakerwants to elicit a serious response, he or she delivers the speech at a slowerthan average tempo. This gives the audience more time to consider the impact ofeach word. But keeping the delivery plodding for too long is less challengingfor the audience and it increases the likelihood that the listeners will becomedistracted.
Increasingthe tempo suggests excitement or informality. But although a fast delivery willinitially stimulate an audience, a speaker should not maintain that excitementindefinitely. Keeping the audience on its toes can be reached by once againmodulating the delivery speed.
Generally, an effective speaker will most oftenspeak in a clear, concise manner at a slightly slower pace using short, simplesentences (subject-verb-object) and high-frequency words. The listeners willnot understand him if he speaks too fast or runs his words together.[28]
An effective speaker does not rush, or talkdeliberately slowly. Being natural – although not conversational – is the mainkey of success.Pause
Being animportant component of intonation, the tempo of speech, alongside with the rateof the utterance, also implies pausation discussed further.
Obviously, it is impossible to notcommunicate with people. We all decode meanings from silences and absences asmuch as we do from talking and other non-verbal actions.
Often, if a speaker feels tense beforegoing into a meeting, he or she takes a deep breath to relax. Furthermore,«lots of folks believe that any gaps in the flow of a conversation arenegative, contributing to overwhelming feelings of awkwardness and uncertainty.To avoid this discomfort, many keep up a constant stream of chatter, whether ornot they have something relevant to contribute,» suggests Nancy Gerber.[29]
On the other hand, we can think aboutpauses in a speech like about rests in music. They can add dramatic effect andvariety as well as giving the presenter a chance to breathe.[30] Some scholars believe that conversationbreaks can help to facilitate reflection on the topic.[31] The pause phase of communication representsa short «time out» that allows both the speaker and listener toimprove communication. A speaker pauses when he or she wants to gather thethoughts, or to find out how the listeners feel about what has been said, or beforeanswering a question.[32] Psychoacoustic investigations provethat the pause gives the listener more time for better comprehension.[33]
Fran Briggs asserts that «silence canprovide a gateway for both the listener and speaker to foresee and adapt withappropriate forethought.» She states that silence can make more than justa point; it can make «an exclamation point… and without a single wordpreceding it. Why is that? Because it can be used to shed light orconvey darkness. Utilizing the sound of silence is truly the „master's“art of communication».[34]
For theanalysis expediency it is efficient to distinguish the following three kinds ofpauses:
1. Shortpauses which may be used to separate intonation groups within a phrase.
2. Longerpauses which normally manifest the end of the phrase.
3. Very longpauses, which are approximately twice as long as the first type, are used toseparate semantic groups.
Carefullycalculated pauses, even a fraction of a second of meaningful silence, can lendemphasis to the group of words that precede it, give time for their meaning tosink in, and rouse suspense about what is to come. Some common occasions for anintentional pause follow:
· before announcingthe name of the speaker you are introducing, a slight pause before pronouncingthe speaker's name gives it the prominence it deserves;
· in mid-sentence —to introduce an important point;
· after asking theaudience a question;
· just before thelast few words of a speech.[35]
Functionally theremay be distinguished syntactic, emphatic and hesitation pauses.[36]
1. Syntacticpauses separate phonopassages, phrases, intonation groups.
2. The pauses are usually made afterphrases or short sentences, not after each word. However, it is not uncommon in speech to findfilled or silent pauses prior to a focal accent as an additional signal ofemphasis.[37]Thus, a pause can appear before an emphatically focused, semantically importantcontent word[38]to make especially prominent certain parts of the utterance:
She is the most |charming girl I've ever seen.||
So, an intentional pause can be a powerful way ofcommunicating. Deliberate pauses at key points have theeffect of emphasising the importance of a particular point.[39]
3. However, apause can also be a hesitation pause[40]which can be part of dysfluency. Hesitation pauses are mainly used inspontaneous speech to gain some time to think over what to say next. They maybe silent or filled. Experiments show that the filled pause is perceived ashesitation conveying uncertainty and non-assertiveness.[41];[42] On the otherhand, silent pause may be used to emphasize an idea, generate certain emotions,and enhance attention to and retention of information presented in a speech.Functioning in the latter capacity, silence is similar to white space in printadvertising, increasing the contrast between the information presented and itssurroundings.
It should bepointed out that our ear can also perceive a pause when there is no stop ofphonation at all. It may happen because a stop of phonation is not the onlyfactor indicating an intonation unit boundary. The main factor is a perceivablepitchchange, stepping down or stepping up depending on the direction ofnuclear tone movement. The other criterion is the presence of juncturalfeatures at the end of each intonation group. This usually takes the form of apause but there are frequently accompanying segmental phonetic modifications(variations in tempo, aspiration etc.) which reinforce this. So the intonationunit boundary is not necessarily indicated by a complete stop of phonation.
To summarize, pauses are meaningful forboth the audience and for the speaker:
· They give the audience a chance to think aboutwhat the speaker said. Therefore, a good place to pause is right after the speakermakes a key point. Such a pause also adds emphasis and dramatic impact to astatement.
· They add variety. An interrupted stretch of wordscan get tiresome to an audience. A pause is a convenient break for thelisteners, and it keeps them attentive.
· They slow down the pace so that the audience canunderstand the speaker more. Nervous speakers tend to speak quickly in order toget the speech out of the way. Pausing gives them a chance to breathe, to calmdown, and speak at a more controlled pace.
· They help a speaker to eliminate «ahs»and «ums». People use such distracting fillers to give them time tothink. The speaker can use the pauses as time to think, and it sounds morepolished and professional to the audience.
On a highercognitive level, pausing is perceived as cognitive loading.Phrasing words for meaning
Meaning comesnot from words alone, but from the relationship of words to one another in anutterance. One of the elementary rules for communicating meaning is that wordsthat are related in meaning should be kept together. In speaking, a slightpause distinguishes one group of related words from another.
In thefollowing sentences, the pause comes between subject and predicate, allowing anaudience to digest what is being spoken about (the subject) before a statementis made about it (the predicate):
The skull of a bluewhale | is the size of an automobile. A limitless amount of radiant energy |falls on the earth from the sun. The celebration of the town's centennial |continued for a whole weekend. Twenty-five million gallons of water | tumbleover Victoria Falls each day.[43]
In morelengthy sentences, where extended phrases or subordinate clauses supplementeither subject or predicate or both, additional pauses may be necessary:
Atmosphericpollution | profoundly harmful to our physical well-being | is threatening ourvery existence.
The Athabaskaglacier in Alberta | as it crawls between Mount Athabaska and Mount Kitchener | grinds a channel seven miles long and three miles wide. The variety show |scheduled to begin this evening at 8 p.m. in the civic auditorium | has beenpostponed until next week | same day | same time | same place.[44]
Besides, itis also important how vowels and consonants are joinedin the stream of speech. A foreign language sounds like a continuous flow ofsyllables if listeners have not learned to recognize the signs of where oneword stops and another begins. Lack of attention to juncture can make a speechindistinct or hard to understand, so even experienced translators may find itdifficult to accurately render a message into another language. For example, ifyou tell a carpenter to build a greenhouse, make sure that you don't end upwith a green house. Or if you ask your secretary to get you the night rate andhave it on your desk the next morning, be sure it doesn't sound like«nitrate.»Rhythm
Prosodiccomponents (pitch, loudness, tempo) and speech rhythm work interdependently.Rhythm is understood as periodicity in time and space. Subjectiveperception of rhythm is correlated with biological processes in the human body: heartbeating, breath and so on. Rhythm can also refer to images, sounds andmovements, and in a speech both can be used. Speech production is naturally closely connectedwith the process of breathing. So speech activity as well as any other humanactivity is conditioned by physiological factors among others and ischaracterized by rhythm.
Rhythm as alinguistic notion is realized in lexical, syntactical and prosodic means andmostly in their combinations. Speech rhythm is traditionally defined asrecurrence of stressed syllables at more or less equal intervals of time in aspeech continuum. We also find a more detailed definition of speech rhythm asthe regular alternation of acceleration and slowing down, of relaxation andintensification, of length and brevity, of similar and dissimilar elementswithin a speech event. Such figures of speech as sound or word repetition,syntactical parallelism, intensification and others are perceived as rhythmicalon the lexical, syntactical and prosodic levels. Often the syntacticalparallelism of the homogeneous clauses is correlated with the identical prosodiccontour of the intonation groups in the phrase and is strengthened by therepetition of a certain word.
In thestress-timed English language, the amount of time given on each syllable variesconsiderably, the total time of uttering each rhythmic unit is practicallyunchanged. The stressed syllables of a rhythmic unit form peaks of prominence.They tend to be pronounced at regular intervals no matter how many unstressedsyllables are located between every two stressed ones. Thus the distribution oftime within the rhythmic unit is unequal. The regularity is provided by thestrong «beats».[45]
The markedlyregular stress-timed pulses of speech seem to create the strict, abrupt andspiky effect of English rhythm. To bring the meaning of the utterance to thelistener the stressed syllables of the notional words are given more prominenceby the speaker and the unstressed monosyllabic form words are left very weak.
The speechtempo and style often regulate the division into rhythmic groups. The enclitictendency is more typical for informal speech whereas the semantic tendencyprevails in accurate, more explicit speech.
The moreorganized the speech is the more rhythmical it appears. A lecture read aloud ismore rhythmic than colloquial speech. On the other hand, rhythm is alsoindividual – a fluent speaker may sound more rhythmical than a person searchingfor the right word and refining the structure of a phrase while actuallypronouncing it.
However,regularity in a speech chain is not realized in its exact isochronous form.Absolutely regular speech produces the effect of monotony. It means that theintervals between the stressed syllables are not physically equal. Whenevershort rhythmic groups are mixed with longer ones the speaker minimizes thedifferences by means of changes in the rate of delivery.
Most rhythmicgroups are simultaneously sense units. K. Pike finds the term «waves»for rhythm periodicity to be very expressive.[46]
In speech anintonation group, a phrase and a phonopassage seem to have similar prosodicorganization:
1) thebeginning of a rhythmic unit is characterized by the tone and intensitymaximum, the slowing of the tempo;
2) the end ofa rhythmic unit is marked by a pause of different length, the tone andintensity minimum, slowing of the tempo, generally sloping descending terminaltones;
3) the mostcommon pre-nuclear pattern of a rhythmic unit is usually the High (Medium)Level Head.
Many of those who use language well have anatural ear for rhythmic patterns: they know how to use rhythmic devices toreinforce meaning and control the emotions of the audience. Rhythm of thedelivered speech can describe the features of the speaker’s voice, thestructural elements of the speech that can be characterized on the textuallevel, and visuals – everything that contains repeated elements.
Tension cancause the vocal cords to be too tight to follow the natural rhythms oflanguage. As a result, the performance can be monotonous and uninspiring.[47] Professional speakers do not distort the rhythm of their speech.[48]
Loudness
Loudness is astrong factor that affects perceived meaning. Human beings have a built-inmechanism that adjusts the volume of the voice to what is needed. Moreprecisely, loudness is the attribute of auditory sensation in terms of which asound may be ordered on a scale from soft to loud[49], corresponding tosome degree with the acoustic features of intensity (measured in decibels(dB)), which in the study of speech is based on the size of the vibrations ofthe vocal cords, as a result of variations inair-pressure. There is, however, no direct or parallel correlation betweenloudness (or 'volume') and intensity: other factors than intensity may affectour sensation of loudness; e.g. increasing the frequency of vocal-cord vibrations may make onesound seem louder than another.
Knowing howto use volume to control meaning is a useful skill. Some speakers havenaturally loud voices. However, the volume of one's voice should correlate withthe size of the room and audience. If one speaks too loudly or too softly, theaudience will react nonverbally. For example, when a speaker starts to speak tooloudly, the listeners move back in their chairs. Or they move up to the edge oftheir seats, turning their ears in the speaker's direction when he speaks toosoftly.
Volumefrequently reflects emotional intensity. Loud persons are often perceived as aggressiveor overbearing. Soft-spoken persons are often perceived as timid or polite.
Volume, orloudness, is often a problem with inexperienced speakers. Some people cannot produceenough energy to be heard by others. Others blast their voices through interpersonalencounters. An overly loud voice can be irritating to listen to and sound brashor autocratic. A speaker with an overly soft voice is equally distracting. Notonly is it difficult to hear and understand, but the audience might concludethat they are listening to a reluctant speaker, and will soon lose patience andinterest. So, speaking too loudly or too softly may lead to a breakdown inspeaker-listener communication.[50]
Besidesspeaking too loudly or too softly, a speaker must be aware of a third aspect ofvolume, which is variety. Volume must be varied if it is to be effective. Whenthe loudness or softness does not vary, then the voice will become boring.Also, a constant volume throughout the presentation leads to failure ofdistinguishing the main points in a speech. The volume should be varied toavoid monotony and periodically recapture his audience's attention. Modulatingthe volume appropriately can serve as a voice clue, helping the audienceidentify the key points.[51]One particularly effective technique for attracting attention to an importantidea is to pause almost imperceptibly before the last two or three words andthen to speak them softly. Listeners lean forward to catch the words. Thespeaker has their undivided attention.[52]
However, somespeakers begin at a normal volume but end up in almost a whisper. This problemof vocal drop-off is usually a product of nervousness, when the speaker eitherruns out of air while delivering a particularly long sentence, or prematurelyfocuses on the next sentence.
Consequently, shouting or whispering is adeviation from normal and it can be misinterpreted. Particularly, raising one'svoice does not facilitate comprehension. Hence the voice should not be too loud.[53] To be better understood, a speaker shouldspeak clearly, in a calm, reassuring manner.Voice Quality
The voicethat people hear when one talks is far different from the simple tone producedby the vibrations of one's vocal folds. Resonation increases the complexity ofthe voice tone. The resonators of the upper body and head are the primarysources of the distinctive sound of each human voicedescribed as voice quality.[54] By affecting theseresonators, people change the quality of their voice.
Voice qualityis the result of a combination of factors, most notably linked to physiologyand breathing patterns. It can range from nasal to breathy and from hoarse toflat and convey an infinite variety of impressions — harsh, excited, bored,angry, amused, apologetic, sexy, conceited.[55]D.Crystal indicates the labels for the many qualities which can be produced asthose that tend to be impressionistic and ambiguous, e.g. a 'cheery','haughty', 'sullen' voice.[56]Different vocal qualities can also be described as 'strident', 'thin','resonant', 'breathy', 'husky', 'harsh', 'nasal', or 'denasal'.[57] Many of these termshave negative connotations.
Good voicequality may be the biggest factor in the effectiveness of some speeches. Thevoices we hear regularly on television news are chosen, at least in part,because people respond positively to their quality.
What isbehind this stereotypical response? Voice quality refers to the generalcharacteristics of one's physiology and their effects upon an audience. Thetonal qualities of the voice significantly affect how the message will bereceived, often overriding the message itself, because listeners automaticallyassociate these qualities with personality. After years of culturalconditioning, listeners expect a speaker to sound the way he or she looks andto employ a tone of voice that is somehow commensurate with the subject. Forinstance, a speech on ballet delivered in a gruff, husky voice, or a speech onmilitary strategy delivered in a breathy voice, would immediately soundincongruous. If the voice is not what the listeners expect, then much of theinitial message will be lost until they adjust.[58]
Accuracy insending and judging the nature of emotional messages appears to be related toan individual's sensitivity and familiarity with the vocal characteristics of emotionalexpression. Besides communicating emotional content, the voice has also beenfound to be a communicator of personal characteristics. Let us examine theaspect of vocal stereotypes.
Listening toa person's voice can sometimes help to identify that person's keycharacteristics. We also tend to associate particular voice types withparticular personality types. Table 1 summarizes stereotypes related tovocal cues.[59]
Table 1. Vocal cues and perceived personalitystereotypesVocal Cues Speakers Stereotypes Breathiness Males Young; artistic Females Feminine; pretty; effervescent; high strung; shallow Thinness Males Did not alter listener's image of the speaker Females Social, physical, emotional, and mental immaturity; sense of humor and sensitivity Flatness Males Masculine; sluggish; cold; withdrawn Females Masculine; sluggish; cold; withdrawn Nasality Males A wide array of socially undesirable characteristics Females A wide array of socially undesirable characteristics Tenseness Males Old; unyielding; cantankerous Females Young; emotional; feminine; high strung; less intelligent Throatiness Males Old; realistic; mature; sophisticated; well adjusted Females Less intelligent; masculine; lazy; boorish; unemotional; ugly; sickly; careless; inartistic; humble; uninteresting; neurotic; apathetic Orotundity Males Energetic; healthy; artistic; sophisticated; proud; (fullness/ interesting; enthusiastic richness) Females Lively; gregarious; aesthetic sensitivity; proud
Speakers shouldbe aware that their vocal quality suggests certain things about them. Whetherreceivers are interested in identifying the speaker's age, occupation, orstatus, they are likely to make assumptions based on what his or her voice saysto them. Although the picture or stereotype they form may be far from accurate,it could still influence their assessment of the speaker as an individual andaffect the way they react to the spoken message.
It followsfrom the above mentioned that in business communication delivery often plays amuch more important role than the message itself. When using the describedparalinguistic means of the language, one should be verycareful. Such qualities as volume and pace can work in unison to achievepowerful effects, especially when selling and persuading from the publicplatform. Adaptation of the pace to the message can be shown by telling some pointsmore rapidly, or by slowly drawing out the words, or by long pauses to let thepoints sink in. The way we emphasize words can also change the meaning of thesentences. Using stress helps the listeners to understand the sense of thewords and to show which words are more important.
businesscommunication linguistic cultural
Conclusion
On the basis of the above analysis it ispossible to draw the following conclusions.
Socio-cultural sensitivity is as importantas any other issue of business communication. Hence, when dealing withinternational partners or customers, business people should consider the communicationpeculiarities, styles and traditions of the target cultures. Moreover, specificfeatures of both formal and informal interaction should be acknowledged in viewof the fact that the main purpose of out-of-office events is to develop mutualtrust and sociability among business people. In addition, participants ofbusiness interaction should be aware of possible communication mistakes inorder to avoid communication blocks, frustration, and misunderstanding.Following accepted and approved communication patterns makes it possible todevelop effective business communication.
Analysis of linguistic features of businesscommunication shows that it also requires much attention on the levels ofcontent, structure and delivery. Thus, in business communication it isimportant to pay attention to both verbal and nonverbal interaction. This meansthat, in order to be effective, partners of business interaction should payattention not only to the peculiarities of business setting, but also buildtheir speech according to the general principles of public speaking, as well asuse feedback, eye contact, personal space, body action, and voice to give thebest impression. A proper balance between confidence and respectfulness willhelp to achieve the goals.
For the future, business communicationshould continue to improve while it strives to produce a larger quantity of deepresearch.
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