Introduction
“The limits ofmy language
mean thelimits of my world.”
LudwigWittgenstein (1889-1951),
Australianphilosopher.
The theme ofthis course paper presents the problem of interconnection between Russian andEnglish languages. It is obvious that the interconnection of languages can bemade within different languages and different time periods. The most importantelements in the process of analyzing the reasons of such phenomenon are to findout the spheres of usage of these words and to discover the scientificapproaches to the problem of loan-words usage expediency.
If we takesuch languages, that had never mixed or had never been taken into the contact,it would all the same turn out, that they had an influence in the past and theyare making an influence now on each other. This influence can be observed hereas the process of language contact.
Borrowings –are words and word combinations, adopted from one language to another accordingto its phonetic and grammatical rules. The number of borrowings is differentin each language. There are languages full of loan-words, such as Korean: itincludes about 2/3 of Chinese lexical units. Others have a little number ofloan-words: such as Russian, French and German. Nevertheless, there arelanguages – Czech, Chinese and Hungarian – which make an effort in order toavoid the input of foreign words and try to make up new words and expressionsfor a new concept by their own lexical units. But there is no language withoutany borrowings because nations can’t be separated from each other andcommunication – cultural, scientific and trade – can’t be syntheticallystopped.
There aredifferent types of borrowings. In the most cases the necessity of adopting someword appears with the penetration of corresponding item or acquiring newnotion. In this way the word “спутник”– “spoutnik”[1] in French and “sputnik”in English was borrowed by many languages from Russian after the launch of thefirst Soviet artificial sputnik of the Earth.
In XIX centurymany loan-words, connected with philosophy and politics, appeared in Russianlanguage. By that time some of them acquired the status of international, forexample: progress, solidarity, proletariat and bourgeois, socialism andcommunism. Russian revolutioner M.B.Butashevich-Petrashevskiy used the processof the international words assimilation for the propaganda of the socialism. In1845 he published the dictionary of foreign words that had got on into Russianlanguage. The dictionary was immediately confiscated by the censorship, andPetrashevskiy was arrested. And it was expectable, because there were thedetailed explanation of such words as “демократия”, “конституция” etc in the dictionary.The flow of borrowing foreign words into Russian language had especiallyincreased in 90-s. It is connected with the inflexions in such spheres aspolitics, economy, culture and new concepts of morality. The extraordinaryexpansion of foreign lexica had been observed in this period.
The realitiesof “new time” appeared mostly in such spheres as mass-media, advertising and ITbecause they present the most update phenomena of our modern lifestyle. It became fashionable fornowadays to use borrowings which came from English into Russian. It isconditioned by the tendency of American society idealisation, where the sociallife level is very high. Also we can’t deny the speed of technical progress inEnglish speaking countries. It is obvious that they have a great potential inalmost every sphere of modern society. That’s why we need to borrow words inorder to name new concepts. The other reason and may be the most important isthat English language nowadays serves as the language of internationalcommunication. May be we should wait a little and “людская речь в один язык сольется” as Sergey Yesenin wrote in his poem.Many Russian scientists are very troubled with the tendency of English andAmerican words penetration into Russian language. There are a lot of examplesin the history when one language gradually absorbed the other one. But as forme I think that Russian language is very rich and it has a great potential toget rid of everything superfluous or unnecessary and it is one of the richestlanguage of the world while including a layer of loan-words in its vocabulary.So the study of the layer of borrowings in the system of vocabulary presents agreat interest to linguists, as it shows the process of language development.
But inaddition to the classical borrowings, which serve to identify new notions,there is a new tendency in Russian language – borrowing the words from Englishlanguage, which already exist and are used in everyday life. For example, it isvery fashionable to say “хаир” from English “hair”which means “волосы или прическа” or “фэйс” from English “face” instead Russian “лицо”. It is clear that we can’t use suchborrowings in the scientific speech or in literary works. Here we can talkabout the process of stylistic distinction of the loan-words.
The nextsubpoint for investigation is the layer of terms appeared in Russian languagewith new technologies and inventions. Great interest of the scientists ofvarious spheres to the problems of terminology can be easily explained by theincreasing flood of the scientific and technical information and the process ofintegration. A.A.Reformatskiy defined the term as a “monosemantic word lackingin emotiveness”. It is clear that a borrowing reflects the meaning of a term inmost legible and distinct way.
There is anup-to-date tendency of assimilating terms in our everyday life. The reason isvery simple – day after day people rig their houses with the most modern andhigh-technological equipment. So in order to use such “house-helpers” peoplehad to study the technological information including the appropriateterminology. So that such words as “телевизор”, “миксер” and many others cameinto our lives. The most demonstrative example as I see is the word “компьютер”. Not so long ago this notionacquired the status of everyday usage word with the process of totalcomputerization. We can hear this term almost everywhere and even from a littlechild. There are some other terms, with the help of which this unit can benamed; they are “ЭВМ” and “ПК”, where the first is “Электронная вычислительная машина” and the second is “Персональный компьютер”. The main feature of these two terms is that they areabbreviations and it means that they refer to the layer of formal vocabulary, exactlyto the professionalisms. After having made an analysis it becomes obvious thatthe first term is a Russian scientific equivalent to the English word“computer”. But from the stylistic point of view this term refers toprofessional terminology of formal vocabulary, it is mostly used in specialengineering or technological articles. By the fact of its rare usage in can becalled archaic. The second term is more popular nowadays. Great interestpresents the fact that it can be found not just in special literature butalthough in other spheres like advertising. Almost in every newspaper we cansee advertisements with such a text:
“требуется специалист сознанием ПК”;
and everyoneunderstands that it means the knowledge of various computer programs.
So it isnecessary to consider the following points, which are be included in thiscourse project:
· It isessential to study and to find out the distinguishing features of each sphereof borrowings, here – mass-media, advertising and IT;
· Tomake the divisions through the stylistic analysis of each word;
· Todetermine the methods of borrowing the word;
· Toestablish the relation between the original word semantics and the loan wordsemantics in the system of the language;
· Tounderstand weather it is so necessary to borrow words from other languages;
· Topoint out the peculiarities of usage of the loan-words;
· Tofind out the social time period connected with definite borrowings.
Everything ischangeable and language especially. The reason is that the language is the mostsensitive phenomenon to the changes in the surrounding world: economics,politics and technological progress with its inventions. Only language canexpress our feelings, actions, thoughts and relations among people, events thatoccur with us.
I.Loan-words of English origin in Russian Language
The process ofadopting foreign words into Russian word-stock in different epoch reflected onthe following development of the whole language system. So it is necessary toinvestigate popular etymology in order to find out, first of all, the originalbackground of the language and then to determine a degree of penetration andthe number of languages which have effected on its volume.
1.1 OriginalRussian vocabulary
The process ofword-stock formation is very long-drawn-out and complicated. It is also closelyconnected with the history of a nation. Russian vocabulary in its moderncondition did not appear at once. Historical lexicology distinguishes two majorways of lexis developing:
1. a riseof original words, existed permanently from ancient times;
2. borrowingof foreign words.
By means ofchronological feature there are following groups of original Russian words,combined together by its origin or genesis (Gr. Genesis – the origin):Indo-European, Common-Slavic, East-Slavic (or Old Russian) and strictlyRussian.
Indo-Europeanwords are words which after the dissolution of the Indo-European ethniccommunity (the end of the neolith period) were inherited by ancient languagesof this language family, including Common-Slavic language. In this way thereare some terms common to most of Indo-European languages: “мать”, “брат”, “дочь”, “овца”, “бык”, “волк”, “мясо”, “кость” and others.
Words thatwere inherited by Old Russian from the Slavic tribes languages, who occupied avast territory of East and Central Europe and Balkans by the beginning of A.D.are called Common-Slavic. It served as a unified means of communicationapproximately till the VII century A.D. that is before the resettlement ofSlavic tribes, when the lingual unity was collapsed. It is natural to supposethat there were some territorially separated dialectal differences in theperiod of one Common-Slavic language circulation, which served as a basis forformation of separate Slavic language groups: South-Slavic, West-Slavic andEast-Slavic. However, each of this group has a number of words appeared in theperiod of Common-Slavic unity. For example:
- namesof plants: “дуб”, “ель”, “ясень”, “лист”, “просо”, “ячмень”, “пшеница”, “мак”, “кора”, “дерево”, “черемуха” and so on;
- referredto labour: “мотыга”, “челнок”, “ковать”, “сечь”;
- namesof shelter and its parts: “дом”, “сени”, “пол”, “кров”;
- namesof poultry and birds: “курица”, “гусь”, “соловей”, “скворец”;
- namesof food-stuffs: “квас”, “кисель”, “сыр”, “сало”and others.
East-Slavic(or Old Russian) words are words that appeared only in the language ofEast-Slavic tribes (ancestors of nowadays Russian, Ukraine and Belarus nations)from the beginning of VIII century. These tribes were united as a feudallystate – «Kievskaya Rus’» by the IX century. The word-stock of this language hasnot been jet well investigated by the historical lexicology but there are someexamples: “сизый”, “хороший”, “падчерица”, “дядя”,“кружево”, “зяблик”, “белка”, “сорок”, “девяносто”, “сегодня”, “внезапно” and others. Properlyspeaking, all words (except of loan-words) appeared when the language developedfirstly as a language of great-Russian nationality (from XIV century), and thenas a national Russian language (from XVII century) refer to the originalRussian vocabulary. Here are the examples of Russian word-stock:
- actions: “ворковать”, “разредить”,“размозжить”, “брюзжать”;
- namesof everyday things: “обои”, “обложка”, “голубцы”, “кулебяка”;
- namesof concepts: “итог”, “обман”, “обиняк”, “опыт” and others.
However to besuccessful in following the language developing is very complicated as thelanguage is alive as a life itself.
1.2Borrowings in Russian language
From theancient times Russian nation came into cultural, trade, military and politicalrelations with other states that certainly leaded to the language borrowings.Within the process of usage the majority of them were exposed by the borrowinglanguage influence. Step by step loan-words, assimilated (from Lat.“assimilare” – усваивать, уподоблять) in borrowing language, had formed thelayer of widespread words and by this time weren’t perceived as foreignanymore. In different epoch words from other languages penetrated into originalRussian vocabulary. However, national originality of Russian language did notsuffer at all from the penetration of foreign words into it, as the process ofborrowing is quite natural way of any language enrichment. Russian languagepreserved its self-dependency and just got rich by means of borrowed words.
Linguisticborrowing are words (morpheme or syntactic construction) and set expressions,moved from one language to another. The beginning of English borrowings inRussian language refers to the beginning of XVII century. Later by the middleof XIX century loan-words entered Russian to become its essential part. Theword-stock of international vocabulary was being arisen.[2]
As fornowadays a great interest of linguists is concentrated upon the Russian–Englishlingual communication. Intensification of informational flow, appearance ofInternet, expansion of international relationships, development of world trade,economy, informational technologies, participation in various internationalcompetitions, fashion shows are the reasons that caused the new words enteringinto Russian lexis.
The opennessof our society leads us to a considerable enlargement of mental outlook andrange of interests, and to the improvement of foreign languages knowledge. Thespheres of international business, trade, culture and tourism have been raisedafter the long period of Soviet “iron curtain”. So that the necessity ofcommunicating with the users of other languages has evolved in our lives.Consequently the necessity of borrowing English words in modern society fitswith the above mentioned reasons.
Adopted wordscome into system-defined relations with original vocabulary:
1) Loan-wordcan be a synonym to the original one:
For example: Файтер – боец;
Мониторинг – наблюдение;
Киллер[3]– убийца;
Пиар – связи собщественностью;
Контракт – договор; etc.
2) Loan-wordcan replace the Russian word:
For example: Секонд-хэнд – комиссионный магазин;
Компьютер — ЭВМ;
Шоу — представление; etc.
3) Loan-wordthat has no equivalent in Russian language, new notions borrowed from anotherculture with the respective unit or concept:
For example: Спрэй;
Инвестор;
Виртуальный;
Лэптоп[4];
Дайджест; etc.
There are twodifferent extremes, which occur with respect to loan-words: on the one hand,oversaturation of a speech with foreign words, on the other hand – the negationof them, the effort to use only the original word. At the same time it is oftenforgotten, that most of adopted words have been assimilated in Russian languageand even have no equivalent, turning up the essential name of correspondingconcept. The absence of scientific approach to the problem of foreignvocabulary familiarization reveals also in the fact that its usage isoccasionally regarded in isolation with the functional–stylistic attaching oflinguistic means. In some cases the application of foreign words is notappropriate, in others — it is necessary, as these words make up an essentialpart of lexis, fixed over the definite style.
The number ofnew concepts and phenomena Russian in origin is very limited. That’s why theadoption of already existing nomination with the respective notion and item isconsidered to be the most prestigious and effective way of enlarging thevocabulary. It is possible to distinguish the following groups of loan-words:
1. Directborrowings. The words are met in Russian in the same form and in the samemeaning as in the initial language. They are: “уик-энд” – weekend, leisure time;“блэк” – black(man) orAfro-American; “мани” – money or cash.
2. Hybrids.These words were formed by addition of Russian suffixes, prefixes and endingsto the foreign root. In this way the meaning of the word often changes. Forexample: “бузить” (busy – беспокойный, суетливый).
3. Calques.Word of foreign origin using with the preservation of its phonetic and graphicshape. They are: “код”, “вирус”, “клуб”, “диск”,“сленг”, “бакс”, “ди-джей”.
4. Half-calques.Words which after being grammatically assimilated were put under thegrammatical rules of Russian language (suffixation).for example: “драйв” – “драйва” (drive) “давно не было такогодрайва” — в значении энергетика, кураж.
5. Exotisms.Such words are characterized by specific national customs or manners of foreignnations and are used to show the atypical for Russian reality notions. Thedistinctive feature of them is that they have no equivalent or synonyms inRussian. For example: “чипсы” (chips), “хот-дог” (hot-dog), “чизбургер” (cheeseburger).
6. Foreignlingual spots. Such words usually have lexical equivalents, but theystylistically differ from these equivalents and are used in the sphere ofcommunication as expressive means to add a peculiar emotiveness to the speech.For example: “о’кей” – O.k!; “вау” – Wow!
7. Composites.Words which were made by means of two or more English lexical units. Forexample: “видео-салон” –a special apartment for watchingmovies, “секонд-хэнд” – a shop that sells the goods whichhave already been used, “лаунж-бар” – a comfortable coctail bar.
8. Jargonisms.These are words appeared in consequence of some sounds distortion. For example:“мыло” – e-mail, “крезанутый, шизанутый” – crazy.
The joining ofborrowings into Russian language increased especially in 90 years of XXcentury. The tendency of expansion foreign words could be observed in almostevery sphere of life. It occupied the leading position in political sphere ofthe country getting accustomed with new concepts: president, inauguration,speaker, impeachment, electorate and others. Such words began to form the layerof new social and political vocabulary. This group is typical for theperiodical press and then to the publicistic-functional style.
If to speakabout the time period there are two major types of borrowings. The first typeis presented by old borrowings which were actualized during last years withrespect to the political and economical systems modification. The second typeincludes the number of loan-words which were made directly during last years.
The mosttypical example of the first type is the word “президент” – president. As far back as the Council of People’sCommissars took place, M.S.Gorbachiov rectified one of the representatives’error when he called him with the term “господин президент”. He asked therepresentative to be more accurate next time as this term “президент” – is the different post and itrefers to the other reality and so on. The adopted word “президент” was popular that time as thenomination of foreign political and social realities (for example: “президент США”, “президент Франции”). Since that time the political situation in the countryhas been changed and so extralinguistic factors have modified the function ofthe word “президент” into actual termappropriate for our modern lifestyle (for example: “Президент Российской федерации”, “Президент Республики Казахстан”). Such words as “электорат” and “легитимный” can be observed in the same way as they received awide spreading in Russian language in the last decade of XX century within theprocess of actualization of the respective notions.
Hence foreignterminology became predominant in the most progressive spheres of science,techniques, politics and financial activities. Such words as “бестселлер”, “вестерн”, “триллер[5]”, “хит” have broken into the sphere of culture.Our everyday speech has keenly begun to adopt new notions with its foreignnominations – “сникерс”, “твикс”, “гамбургер” and others.
Time will showus if these borrowings can change, enrich or deteriorate the image of Russianlanguage. Time will define the future destiny of each loan-word which is to befinally adopted or rejected by linguistic flavor of the epoch. Russian languagehas a long history of adopting words dictated by the necessity to perceiveuseful information in the form of new words drawing on internationalexperience. Such words are named in many ways, most commonly: borrowings andloan-words. The process of new words adoption is determined by nations’contacts which generate a necessity of new concepts and ideas nomination. Such wordsare usually the results of some nation’s innovation in any sphere of science ortechniques. They may also appear as a consecutive result of snobbery, fashion.Nevertheless, there are essentially linguistic reasons: for instance, thenecessity to express polysemantic Russian words by means of foreign word or towiden the expressive means of a language, etc.
For those whoare fond of sports such new notions appeared: “виндсерфинг”, “армрестлинг”, “фристайл”, “скейтборд”, “кикбоксинг”, “файтер”,“овертайм”, “гол”, “хоккей”, “футбол”, “баскетбол” and even the word “спорт”.
In the sphereof non-manufacturing business many new notions appeared: “презентация”, “номинация”, “видео”,“шоу”, “хит”, “дискотека”, “диск-жокей” (ди-джей) and many others.
Loan-wordsusually refer to the layer of bookish words and special terminology and areused mainly in bookish speech genre and in the scientific or technicalarticles. At last time, the main source of linguistic stuff became contemporarymass media.
Modern life ishardly possible without information. The mass media plays an important role inour life. Millions of copies of newspapers are printed in our country everyday. The role of the press can hardly be overestimated, particularly atpresent. It keeps you to be informed in the latest news, different events, homeand foreign affairs, news of culture, science and engineering development.While reading newspapers or watching TV every person is confronted with a greatnumber of borrowed words. As to the rule words occur in the newspaper pages andmagazines can be divided into three groups:
1. Wordswhich have synonyms in Russian:
For example: “бренд” the synonym is “торговая марка”.
2. Wordswhich have no equivalents in Russian:
For example: “спортсмен”, “футбол”, “проблема”.
3. Wordswhich are printed in newspapers in English:
For example:“non-stop”
1.3Assimilation of new words
All wordsgetting from one language (from which the word is borrowed- Source language)into another (language that adopts a word – Target language) come through thefirst stage of assimilation. On this stage words are still connected with thereality that created them. Also when the word hasn’t got yet acclimatized inthe target language it can have variants of pronunciation and spelling; forexample: “доллар”, “доллер”, “долар” (Eng. “dollar”)[6]
Thecharacteristic features of these lexical units at the survey period are theirmass character, novelty and uniformity against the source language. The overwhelmingmajority of new words are to be borrowed from English language. The spherewhere loan-words usually assimilate is quite specific. First of all, it is a“professional terminology” of any sphere specialists’ (computer engineering,financing activities, trade business, sports) and also spheres of politics,art, fashion, music, dancing and others.
Totalcomputerization has leaded to the appearance, in Russian language andespecially in the youth midst, a peculiar computerese jargon. It is obvious,that all innovations are held inside the system of the language and are formedup by means of Russian language grammatical rules. Consequently, the users ofthis jargon, aimed at making their speech distinctive and colorful can notmanage without normal Russian language and rules mentioned above. There are agreat number of computerese jargonisms which were changed or purposely mangled.English verb “to crack” (раскалывать) was changed into “крекнуть” or in humorous form “крякнуть”, a verb “to hack” (кромсать, разбивать) – became “хакнуть”with the help of Russian suffix “-ну”, which serves to denote a momentary action (that is to do somethingonce; for example: “стукнуть” – to knock once and “стучать” – to knock during some time). Bythe way, there is no category of such kind in English, but in Russian languageit is very common. Two ways of reproduction of one English word “game” (игра) have resulted into two varieties ofits handing over:
1) Afterthe way of writing:
“гамесы” that is “игры” (games, plural form);
2) Afterthe way of pronunciation:
“геймер” that is “игрок” (player, a person).
On the whole,English suffix “-er” turned out to be very customary for denomination of anykind figures; for example: “юзер”,“дилер”, “киллер”. Nowadays labour-market becomeswider by means of new professions which come from the most developed countries.There is an interesting and a very up-to-date profession called “фрилансер” (from English freelancer – “freelance”, a person working out of stuff). This nomination refers to the number ofwords which have never existed in Russian language. So that mass media as themost sensitive organ of modern society tries to introduce us with such notions:
«…но в душе уже тогдазнала, что стану фрилансером…»[7]
A lot of wordslike “компьютер”, “дисплей”[8], “файл”, “интерфейс”, “принтер”,“сканер”, “ноутбук”, “браузер”, “сайт”, “провайдер” and many others are reflections ofnew lifestyle generated by total computerization.
On the whole,computerese jargon is very similar to a general jargon (Jargon – is a speech ofany social or professional group which contains a large number of terms andexpressions peculiar to only such group, including imitation or relativewords.)[9] and is developing withinits rules. Research workers of Russian language strive for fixing noveltiesemerging in a system of language. Special dictionaries of neologisms serve tothis problem realization. There are annual and anniversary dictionaries wereobservations about borrowings are collected together. It is significant thatneologisms are new words which have not yet became day-to-day objects orconcepts or corresponding items or notions. They are to be generated by twoways: firstly, neologisms appear on the original base of a language andsecondly, some notions come from one language to another in one of the forms ofborrowings.
Graduallyforeign term gets assimilated due to its frequent usage in spoken language andin written form. Its morphological shape acquires stable form and as a resultthe adaptation, according to the norms of language, occurs. On this stage offoreign word assimilation in the sphere of native speakers’ popular etymologybegins its operation. When a foreign word considered being incomprehensiblepeople usually make an effort to fill its sound form with the contents closeand most easily understood to the users of borrowing language. For example: theword “пиджак”. When it was justborrowed from English “pea-jacket” it sounded as “спинжак” in respect to the Russian notion “спина”.
And the laststage of foreign word penetration is striking root, when the word becomeswidely used in the vocabulary system of native speakers and completely adaptswithin the grammatical rules of this language. From then on the word isincluded into all processes that occur with other words of the word-stock: itcan produce words of the same root, abbreviations, acquire new nuances ofdefinition. For example the English word “попса” that is popular music, pop music. This word is veryfrequent in usage, so it produced a lot of word-forms and combinations: “популярный”, “поп-культура”, “попсовый” and “поп-звезда”.
Sometimeswords of English origin in Russian language can be defined by the ending:
- withthe ending “-ер” or “-ор” is presents the largest group: “бартер”, “блейзер”, “брокер”, “ваучер”, “гамбургер”, “спонсор”,“компьютер”, “триллер”, “инвестор”;
- withthe ending “-инг”, stress is placed on thefirst syllable: “брифинг”, “лизинг”, “рейтинг”, “серфинг”, “холдинг”;
- withthe ending “-мент”, always trisyllable ortetrasyllable nouns: “импичмент”, “истеблишмент”, “менеджмент”;
- endingwith a vowel sound: “лобби”, “шоу”, “ноу-хау”.
1.4 Stressesin loan-words
One of themost important aspects in the process of borrowing isplacing stresses.In most cases a stress, correspond to the original language is the same in itsborrowed variant. There are a lot of examples: “менеджмент”, “дефолт”,“спикер”, “сайт”, “инвестор” and so on. Unstable character of stresses in loan-words isinevitable; it proves that borrowed words come into cooperation with Russianvocabulary and gradually assimilate with it becoming a system-definedphenomenon. Nevertheless, a great number of new words which came from Englishlanguage do not reveal unstable character of stresses. The exception is theword “маркетинг” (in English [`mɑːkɪtɪŋ]) where the stresscan change its position from the first syllable to the following one.
II. Loanwords in English language
ContemporaryEnglish language with its specific sound structure, grammatical order and lexisappears before us as the product of long-lasting historical development. Withinthis process English language was exposed to a many-sided modificationsdetermined by different reasons. Over the history of the language a lot ofconsiderable changes, rapid or more gradual, were made in the areas of soundstructure, grammatical order and vocabulary. In most cases it happened byvirtue of its internal evolution and sometimes, particularly in its lexicalstructure, under the influence connected with the historical fortune of Englishnation. Such changes make an influence on every aspect of linguistic structurebut affects differently on each of them.
2.1 OriginalEnglish vocabulary
It turned upthat the vocabulary of a language is to be found in the condition of persistentmodification. Such mobility as well as changeability is conditioned by the factthat a language and first of all its vocabulary are directly connected withmanufacturing and other social human activities.
It isreasonable that, in order to fulfill its fundamental function – to be theprimary means of communication, the language’s word-stock have to react quicklyon every modification in all spheres of human activity, reflecting and fixingnew concepts and notions.
The vocabularyof modern English is undoubtedly richer then the Old English one. Thisenrichment of English language proceeded due to its inner resources –wordbuilding, affixation and reformation of definitions as well as over theprocess of borrowing foreign words.
There are alot of events which have effected on the process of English vocabularyformation; such as acceptance of Christianity (which pushed English nation intocontact with Latin civilization), Scandinavian and Norse conquests (after whichEnglish vocabulary have lost a portion of its original lexis, including wordsof everyday usage), centennial war, the growth of bourgeoisie, the Renaissance,the rise of English nautical dominion, colonial usurpations, the development oftrade, industry, science and literature, the development of self-consciousnessof the working class and finally the first and the second world wars. As aresult the lexis of modern English vocabulary presents the mixture of differentelements, including only 30% of originally English words. This circumstancegives occasion to many research workers to exaggerate the significance ofborrowings and to reckon English language in a German-Romanic group oflanguages and not just Germanic. They usually point out the compound characterof English lexis as the most significant peculiarity and bring the wholeEnglish lexicology to the problem of borrowings. Nevertheless, the majority ofborrowed words are perceived by people in contemporary language as Englishwords, whatever real origin they have.
Many wordsused to be in application in early times vanished from the living languageeither because items or notions, denoted by them became out of date and quittedof usage in altered conditions of life or since they were replaced by newnominations which became generally used. However such words which gone out ofusage are still commonly used in literary language with a peculiar lexicalpurpose.
Indeed wordsof English origin are those which refer to the Old English period. The otherportion is foreign words which came from Latin, Greek, French, Scandinavian andother languages. There are two ways of new words penetration. The first isspoken language, that is, owing to the vivid communication of two nations usingdifferent languages the adoption of new words denoting material items orcultural notions appears. In this way new words assimilates completely faster.The second way is literary or written, that is, borrowing of new words fromforeign texts during the translation of them into Target language. In this waynew nominations preserve their phonetic, grammatical and orthographic featuresfor a long time.
Englishlanguage was formed by two major layers of English lexis: Anglo-Saxon andRomanic. Romanic layer in its turn can be divided into Latin and French.Moreover there are a lot of words which were borrowed from about 50 languagesof the world, including Russian during the period of 1500 years.
Upon the wholesuch easiness of the new words adoption lays within the fact that England is anisland and its geographical position was always the main reason for theattempts to conquer it by many other communities.
2.2 Classificationof borrowings
Borrowingswhich are included in the vocabulary of a language can be classified into threegroups:
1) accordingto the source of borrowings[10];
2) accordingto the aspect which was borrowed;
3) accordingto the level of assimilation.
According tothe aspect that was borrowed, loan-words are divided into: phonetic andtranscription, when the sound structure is rendered to be completely new, sothis is when the sound structure remains unchanged in the borrowed word it onlyacquires some phonetic peculiarities of the Target language;calque-translations (the blue-print translation of the notion); semanticloan-words and the borrowing of wordbuilding elements.
Under thesemantic borrowing we should understand the adoption of new nomination; it isoften a figurative meaning to the already existing notion. The words “pioneer”and “brigade” have already existed in English word-stock before the penetrationof sovetisms into it, but the definitions “” and “” they acquired under theinfluence of Russian language of Post October period.
As to theRussian language, in Before October period the words were borrowed mainlyreferring with the peculiarities of Russian nature, life and objects of trade:sable “соболь”, astrakhan “каракуль”, starlet “стерлядь”, steppe “степь”, verst “верста”, izba “изба”. There are a lot of sovetisms inEnglish. Among them there are phonetic borrowings, where new notion and newsound structure are borrowed together: soviet, sputnik, bolshevik, kolkhoz,activist. After having made the analysis of new word definition with theoriginal language one it turned out that it preserves just a part ofdefinitions, often one of them and besides not the primary, but derivationalone and it is quite often becomes a term (for example: sputnik and soviet.)
Calque-making- is the process of borrowing new words within adopting its associative meaningand the structure of the word or word combination 9for example: house of rest –“дом отдыха”, five-year-plan – “пятилетний план, пятилетка”). During the process of calque thewords or word combinations are translated separately and then combined togetheraccording to the foreign pattern of the word or word combination. According tothe structure of the Target language calques can be divided into three groups:
1) word-formativecalques – the morphological structure is reproduced;
2) phraseological– the process of blue-print translation of each word;
3) semantic– to attach figurative meaning to the already existed word according to theforeign pattern.
So that theprocess of calque-making realizes a very important function, being the guide ofintercultural influence between languages. Word-formative calques can beinexact: during the translation one of the morphemes can be interpreted withthe help of approximate equivalent.
Calque-makingand transcription as the means of borrowing should be distinguished from the ofthe same name methods of translation. They do not differ by the mechanism butthey do by the final result: the enlargement of vocabulary doesn’t take placeduring the process of translation, whereas during the process of borrowing newlexical units appears in the language.
2.3 Periodsof Russian words’ penetration into English language
Most ofresearch workers divide Russian influence on the English lexical system intotwo periods:
1) borrowingsof the pre-revolutionary period;
2) borrowingsof Soviet period.
However,V.V.Akulenko in his Ph.D. thesis (candidate's dissertation) divided the historyof Russian language interaction with other Occidental languages, includingEnglish, into four periods.
The firstperiod covers the influence of Old Russian language of the Kiev Russia on theOld and partially Middle English languages.
The secondperiod is closely connected with the development of trade and politicalcommunication of Russia and England, the upgrowth of Russian nation’s power; itbegins from the second half of XVI century and continues up to the middle of XIXcentury.
The thirdperiod begins from the 60 years of XIX century and lasts till 1917. Here themodifications in economical and social spheres are in the focus of interest,the increasing power of revolution struggled with the reaction and a great progressin the development of native science and culture.
The fourthperiod of Russian influence is the Soviet epoch. One could say about a newstage in the development of political and social-economic vocabulary of Russianlanguage and also about the further development of its internationalsignificance in the post-war period connected with the beginnings of powerfulcamp of peace, democracy and socialism as far as the creation of UNO (UnitedNations Organization), where Russian language was declared as the internationallanguage along with English, French, Spanish and Chinese.
Today we canspeak about the fifth Post-Soviet period.
2.3.1 Thefirst period
The mutualattention between English, French and Russian nations may be observed fromancient times. The Kiev state had extremely wide connections with differentnations of Asia and Europe, including ancient Englishmen. As far back as in theXI century Novgorod was well-known by English people first of all as thesupplier of furs and jewelry. The marriage of Vladimir Monomakh with thedaughter of the English king Gerald had taken has taken place by this time. Thecultural level of Kiev Russia was so high that occidental people thought it tobe a rival to the Constantinople. Undoubtedly, the importance of Russianlanguage must have been very considerable with such position of Russian state.Especially with the regard of the fact that Russian nation have already made asignificant progress in its economical, political social and cultural spheresby this time. However, the process of borrowing new words by English languagewere not so large in number and the interpenetration of languages in thisperiod did not occur, though it presents itself very probable that Russianlanguage was able to make some influence on the vocabulary of English language.
There are anumber of words which were borrowed in different periods from Slavic languagesinto the Old Germanic. The main part of them got into the Scandinavianlanguages, the native speakers of which had a direct connection with the Slavs.As to the Old English, the number of Slavic borrowings is not so numerous init. Thus, for example English words “talk” (разговор, беседа) and “to talk” (говорить, разговаривать, болтать) goes back to theScandinavian root “tolk” from Russian “толк” (that is: толковать, толковый). At the same time theword “sable” from Russian “соболь”appears not just in English but in many other occidental languages as theexpansive fur of this small animal was selling to many countries by East-Slavs.But during the period of assimilation this word acquired the second meaning –the adjective “dark”.
Even inancient times Old English as many other German languages had a number of wordswhich went back with the roots of words Slavic in origin. It is obvious thatthey were already borrowed in XII century. They are: “мед” – meodu (Old English) and mead(contemporary English), “молоко” – meolk (Old English)and milk (contemporary English), “плуг” – ploz (Old English) and plough (contemporary English) andothers. Professor A.I.Smirnitsky have distinguished a more early Slavicborrowing in Old English language: the word “syrce” (рубаха, панцирь, кольчуга) which goes back to theOld Slavic “sork” which can be compared with Russian “сорочка”.
It isinteresting that there are the same Slavic borrowings in both Old English andScandinavian languages and it is hard to find out weather they were borrowedfrom Slavic language into each separately or they penetrated directly fromSlavs into Scandinavian and then to Anglo-Saxons.
2.3.2 Thesecond period
This period(XVI-XVII centuries) is well-observed by means of three sources:
1. «Словарьмосковитов» (French-Russian,1586);
2. «Записная книжка» — Richard James’ Russian-English dictionary (1618-1620);
3. «Русская грамматика» by Henry Ludolf (Oxford, 1696).
Stablerelations between Russia and England nations were settled only in XVI century.This time is characterized by lasting commercial and diplomatic relationsbetween England and Muscovy and by real interest of London merchants inmaintenance of business connections with Russian nation. On the other hand theignorance of foreign languages, including English in Moscovy was at that timean extremely important motivation towards the studying Russian languages byforeigners. Consequently, owing to the development of capitalism in England andthe expansion of traffic by sea England was very interested in communicationswith Moscovy. English government in XVI-XVII centuries took care of permanenttrainings for translation staff from Russian language.
The most ofRussian borrowings of this period penetrated into English by writing – over thedifferent reports, diaries and descriptions of Englishmen who visited Russia.In most cases they were nominations of marketing articles, household goods,officials’ names, geographical names and others.
1. Namesof officials, subordinate people and governors, nominations referred with thestate arrangement: tsar, voivode, knes, bojar, mouzhik, Cossack and others;
2. Measuresof weight, distance and currency: verst, arshin, pood, rouble, copeck,chervonets;
3. Objectsof clothing and food which were exotisms for Englishmen: shuba, kvas, shchi,borshch, calash, vodka, nalivka, bliny, okroshka and many others;
4. Householdgoods: troika, izba, telega, balalaika, samovar, tarantas, droshki, kibitka,makhorka;
5. Geographicalpeculiarities and animals: steppe, tundra, taiga, suslik, borzoi;
Later onEnglish language borrowed another words like: kokoshnik, khorovod, beluga,obrok, zolotnik, otrezok, vedro, matrioshka. Thus for example the word“mammoth” was borrowed by English language as the name of prehistoric animalwhich was founded in Russia.
wordenglish russian language
2.3.3 Thethird period
This period ischaracterized by the developing of industry and at the same time the workingclass. The struggle of leading people against tsarist government, the growth ofpeople's democratic liberation movement and further strengthening revolutionarymovement in XIX and the beginning of XX centuries were reflected in borrowingof such Russian words as: nihilist, nihilism, nihilistic, intelligentsia.
The wordnarodnik and narodism appeared in English language as a result of the narodnikmovement’s development.
The Englishlexical system is rapidly enriches itself by many new neologisms which expresssocial concepts. From the latter half of the XIX century Russian literaturebecame the matter of interest for deep and serious studying in Occidentals.Thus, the word “nihilist” penetrated into English after the translation of thenovel «Отцы и дети» by Turgenev.
Undoubtedly,the roots of such words as “Decembrist” or “intelligentsia” are Latin and therealready existed words of the same root, but, nevertheless, it is absolutelycorrect to treat them as Russian because their new meanings were acquired inaccordance with the Russian reality of that days. The word “Decembrist” refersto the range of political ideas, which appeared as a result of armed revoltagainst autocracy and serf-ownership which took place in Saint-Petersburg onthe 14 of December 1825.
In the verybeginning of the XX century the words “duma”, “pogrom” were borrowed by Englishlanguage.
2.3.4 Thefourth period
The languageis directly connected with the human activity and as the result it reflects allchanges in industry, society, politics and other spheres. As more significantthe event, occurred in one country, so much attention it stimulates in othercountries.
As far as theXX century begun, the new Socialistic state was formed in Russia. Russianpolitical terms became well-known in the whole world, they entered intointernational usage and filled up the word-stock of many languages.
Such words as“Bolshevik”, “Menshevik” and others became widespread. This fact shows theinterest of English nation to the political situation in Russia. The gratenumber of Marxist-Leninist terminology was borrowed by many languages,including English after the victory of the Great October Socialisticrevolution.
Words whichwere borrowed from Russian language in this period are called sovetisms whichserves to denote the ideas, concepts and institutions appeared owing to therevolution and appearance of the first socialistic state — the Soviet Union.
For examplethe word “Soviet” was fixed by English dictionaries in 1917 and was very commonin English and American periodical press and literary in 1918-1919 years.However, the Russian word “совет”has an appropriate equivalent in English — “council” with the meaning ofadministrative, social organ (e.g. Council of ministers – Совет министров), but it did not became established as it could not express the wholerange of concepts which were included in this notion.
This period ischaracterized by appearance of such words as: sovkhoz, kolkhoz, Komsomol,Leninism, bolshevism, commissar, collectivization, industrialisation, subbotnikand many others.
Thedevelopment of socialistic agriculture which was the foundation for theappearance in English language of such words as: “jurovisation” (яровизация) and the verb “to jarovize”,“podzol” (подзолистая почва) and the adjective “podzolic”.
During theSecond World War English language enriched with such words as: stormovik (штурмовик), partisan (партизан), Yak (самолет – як).
Russianborrowings played a great role in the perfection of contemporary philosophicand political terminology of many countries, including English.
Also, duringthe Soviet period English language was penetrated by such new phraseologismsas: hero of labour (герой труда), socialist construction (социалистическое строительство), indestructiblemoral-political unity (нерушимое морально-политическое единство), vital interests of the people (жизненные интересы народа), reclamation of virginand unused lands (освоение целинных и залежных земель).
2.3.5 Thefifth period
The firstRussian word which was borrowed in this period was the word “glasnost”[11]that was used in English since 1986. It was registered in the dictionary ofneologisms as “the willingness of the Soviet government to be more open aboutits affairs” (Longman Guardian New Words Ed. By S.Mort – Bristol, 1986). Duringthe process of assimilation the word “glasnost” formed new word “preglasnost”.This fact proves that this word became widespread in English vocabulary.
In 1987 theword “perestroika” penetrated into English word-stock. It is often used in themeaning of restructuring or economic reform.
The pages ofEnglish newspapers became full of such words as: novoe muishleniye,democratizatsia[12], hozyaschot[13],gospreyomka.
The Canadiancommunistic newspaper wrote the following about the word democratizatsia:Democratizatsia… does not mean the same thing as its English equivalent –democratization. In fact the Soviet concept of democracy is quite different andmay turn out to be far more comprehensive and liberating («Canadian Tribune»,1988).
The wordhozraschot was often replaced by “cost-accounting” or “self-management” whichserved to exaggerate the independency of enterprises in USSR.
The massmedia: newspapers, TV, radio, advertising and Internet help to popularize newconcepts in the new lexical system. For example: “The second section of theDruzhba oil pipeline … (1971 Novosti Press Agency Publishing House Moscow) (Вторая секция нефтепровода «Дружба»…). Here the word “Дружба” penetrates into English without translation as a propername and at the same time with the opened inner meaning-form. As therecognition of Russian ballet the word-combination Bolshoy ballet got intoEnglish without translation.
Conclusion
During thestudy of intercultural communication of Russian and English languages it becameclear that the process of new words’ borrowing occur within the specific rangeof social or political events. So the history of the country has a greatinfluence upon the history of the language. All events in the history such as:wars, revolutions, trade, economical and political contacts, new inventions andmany others always have a definite reflection in the lexical system of alanguage.
As it wasmentioned in the work there is always a risk of inappropriate usage of newwords. Hence, the topicality of this investigation lies in the consideration ofthe problems which are connected with the theory and practice of borrowings andit is very actual for nowadays.
In this courseproject I have made the classification of loan-words which includes: directborrowings, hybrids, calques, half-calques, exotisms, foreign lingual spots,composites and jargonisms. Besides there are some other classifications:according to the system-defined relations and according to the time period ofborrowing the word.
English-Russianlingual intercommunication attracts the strong investigators’ interest aimed onthe investigation of the whole layer of loan-words.
In general thelayer of foreign terminology presents itself a significant linguisticphenomenon the role of which in both English and Russian is very essential.
The general rule of the system character of the language phenomena inapplication to a problem of loan-words can be formulated, consequently, asfollows: any change in dictionary of any language by means of new words’penetration into another language entails semantic or stylistic changes inoriginal words already available in language and shifts in synonymic groups.
Word — is a conductor of thoughts, feelings and ideas. The word iscapable to tell much of history of people which have met on the historical wayof any nation.
But the phenomenon of new words appearance presents a very complicatedproblem and we can’t deny the significant role of the mass media. In our modernlife we are permanently connected with it. Mass media brings “high speedcirculation” into our life. There are many purposes, which can be achieved bythe press. It enriches our knowledge and broadens our outlook. The press shapespublic opinion, influences governmental policy, gives citizens a view of ourcountry and foreign countries as well. It performs a few functions:informative, entertaining, commercial, and is addressed to people of differentpolitical views and different stations in life. What is printed and what isnot, largely depends on the publishers’ concert of news. The most number ofup-to-date things we usually hear or read by means of mass media. In this way,new concepts come into our life. The speed of foreign words’ penetration becamefaster within the development of mass media. It becomes obvious if we lookthrough the classification of the periods when the borrowings were made.
The problem of loan-words’ translation presents a great interest to thetranslators of all languages, because there are some difficulties in choosingthe most appropriate equivalent to the corresponding item. This aspect may havea different effect on the future usage of the chosen nomination and presentsthe great responsibility for the translator.
This problem also presents an interesting subject to the students whichlearn foreign language professionally in order to avoid the possibility ofmaking the mistake while translating some articles or speeches.
List of literature
1. М.А.Брейтер«Англицизмы в русском языке: история и перспективы», Владивосток: издательство«Диалог», 1995.
2. Г.О.Винокур«Заметки по русскому словообразованию», Москва 1996.
3. Л.П.Крысин«Иноязычные слова в современной жизни. Русский язык конца XX столетия», Москва, 1996.
4. Э.А.Бурова«Лексические галлицизмы в современном русском языке», Ростов-на-Дону, 2004.
5. А.И.Дьяков«Причины интенсивного заимствования англицизмов в современном русском языке»,Новосибирск, издательство «Язык и культура», 2003.
6. М.П.Алексеев«Английский язык в России и русский язык в Англии» Серия филологических наук,1974.
7. В.Д.Аракин«История английского языка», издательство «Просвещение», 1985.
8. В.М.Аристова«Англо-русские языковые контакты», 1978.
9. И.В.Арнольд «Лексикологиясовременного английского языка», 1959.
10. А.А.Брагина«Русское слово в языках мира», издательство «Просвещение», 1978.
11. Л.П.Крысин«Иноязычные слова в современном русском языке», Москва, издательство «Наука»,1968.
12. В… Кожевникова,П.А.Николаева «Литературный энциклопедический словарь», Москва, издательство«Советская энциклопедия», 1987.
13. Русско-европейскиелитературные связи: сборник статей, Москва, издательство «Наука», 1966.
14. Электронныйсловарь «ABBYY Lingvo 11» шесть языков, 2005.
Application№1
Borrowings in Russian
Original English word
Meaning 1 Пиар PR- public relations (abbreviation) the work of explaining to the public what an organization does, so that they will understand it and approve of it 2 ВИП VIP- very important person (abbreviation) someone who is very famous or powerful and is treated with special care and respect 3 мобильный (телефон) mobile not fixed in one position, and easy to move or use in different places 4 бойфрэнд boyfriend a man that you are having a romantic relationship with 5 гёрла girl a word meaning a woman, especially a young woman 6 гёлфрэнд girlfriend a girl or woman that you are having a romantic relationship with 7 юниор junior having a low rank in an organization or profession 8 перфоманс performance when someone performs a play or a piece of music 9 маркетинг marketing the activity of deciding how to advertise a product, what price to charge for it etc, or the type of job in which you do this 10 менеджмент management the activity of controlling and organizing the work that a company or organization does 11 киллер killer a person who kills a person, animal or other 12 диллер dealer someone who gives out playing cards in a game 13 промо (акция) promo something that advertises an event or product 14 промоутер promoter someone who tries to persuade people to support or use something 15 маркет market the system in which all prices and wages depend on what goods people want to buy, how many they buy etc 16 брэнд brand a type of product made by a particular company, that has a particular name or design 17 франчайзер franchisee someone who is given or sold a franchise to sell a company's goods or services 18 доллар dollar the standard unit of money in the US, Canada, Australia, and some other countries, divided into 100 cents: symbol $ 19 президент president the official leader of a country that does not have a king or queen 20 спикер speaker someone who makes a formal speech to a group of people 21 импичмент impeachment if a government official is impeached, they are formally charged with a serious crime in a special government court 22 инаугурация inaugurate to hold an official ceremony when someone starts doing an important job in government 23 лоббист lobby a person who tries to persuade a government that a particular law or situation should be changed 24 рейтинг rating a level on a scale that shows how good, important, popular etc someone or something is 25 референдум referendum when people vote in order to make a decision about a particular subject, rather than voting for a person 26 сепаратист separatist someone who belongs to a group that wants to start a new country with its own government, by separating from the country that they belong to now 27 парламент parliament the main law-making institution in the country with parliamentary form of ruling. 28 триколор three colors (jargonism) means colors of Russian flag 29 электорат electorate all the people in a country who have the right to vote 30 консалтинговый consultative providing advice and suggesting solutions to problems 31 холдинг holding company a company that completely or partly owns other companies, as well as doing business itself 32 лэптоп laptop computer a small computer that you can carry with you 33 фирма firm a business or company, especially a small one 34 Интернет Internet a computer system that allows millions of computer users around the world to exchange information 35 компьютер computer an electronic machine that stores information and uses programs to help you find, organize, or change the information
Application№2
Loan-word of Russian origin in English language
Definition XVI century arsheen мера длины, равная 0,71 м boyar крупный землевладелец, принадлежавший к высшему слою господствующего класса copeck мелкая монета, 1/100 рубля Kremlin городская крепость kvass кисловатый напиток, приготовляемый на воде из хлеба с солодом, а также из ягод, фруктов muzhik невоспитанный, необразованный крестьянин rouble основная денежная единица в России, равная 100 копейкам sevruga крупная промысловая рыба из семейства осетровых tsar единственный государь, а также титул монарха verst мера длины, равная 1,06 км XVII century cossack казак, член военно-земледельческой общины вольных поселенцев на окраинах государства, активно участвовавших в защите и расширении государственных границ kibitka крытая дорожная повозка pood мера веса, равная 16,3 кг sagene мера длины, равная трем аршинам (2,13 м) sarafan женская крестьянская одежда, род платья без рукавов, надеваемого поверх рубашки с длинными рукавами steppe безлесное, бедное влагой и обычно ровное пространство с травянистой растительностью в зоне сухого климата suslik небольшое животное из отряда грызунов, а также его мех telega четырехколесная повозка для перевозки грузов конной тягой tsaritsa жена царя XVIII century balalaika щипковый струнный музыкальный инструмент с треугольной декой isba деревянный крестьянский дом knout веревка или ремень, прикрепленные к палке и служащие для понукания животного, а также для телесных наказаний to knout бить кнутом Raskolnik последователь религиозно-общественного движения, возникшего в России в XVII веке, направленного против официальной церкви shuba верхняя зимняя одежда на меху tsarevich сын царя ukase постановление верховного органа власти, имеющее силу закона yurt переносное, конусообразной формы жилище у некоторых кочевых народов Азии и Южной Сибири XIX century artel ataman blin bortsch chernozem Cadet dacha Decembrist droshky druzhina duma fieldsher karakul kasha kulak kurgan mazut pirog polynya samovar shchy starover taiga tarantas tchin
troika tsarevna vodka zakuska zemstvo XX century afganets горячий сухой южный ветер agitprop распространение в массах и разъяснение устным или письменным путем каких-либо воззрений, идей для политического воспитания масс и привлечения их к активной общественно-политической жизни apparat совокупность учреждений, обслуживающих какую-либо отрасль управления, хозяйства и партии apparatchik работник хозяйственного и партийного аппарата babushka старая женщина; головной платок, косынка Bolshevik член большевистской партии, коммунист commissar руководящее лицо с общественно-политическими, административными функциями; политический руководитель воинской части, отвечавший наравне с командиром за ее боеспособность и политическое состояние glasnost открытость воззрений Gulag лагерь для военнопленных у немцев в период Второй мировой войны intelligentsia работники умственного труда, обладающие образованием и специальными знаниями в различных областях науки, техники и культуры jarovization процесс обработки семян, ускоряющий их рост и созревание to jarovize подвергать семена обработке, ускоряющей процесс их роста и созревания kazachoc народный танец с ускоряющимся темпом kissel студенистое жидкое кушанье kolkhoz производственное, социалистического типа, объединение трудящихся крестьян для коллективного ведения сельского хозяйство (из сокращенного выражения «коллективное хозяйство») komsomol коммунистический союз молодежи kulturny воспитанный человек lunik космическая ракета, направленная на Луну lunokhod автоматический самоходный аппарат, передвигающийся по Луне Menshevik последователь меньшевизма, член антимарксистской партии narod население государства niet — no nitchevo — nothing nomenklatura работники, персонально назначаемые высшей инстанцией paskha сладкое кушанье из творога в форме четырехугольной пирамиды, изготовляющееся к весеннему празднику воскресения Христа, иначе кулич pelmeny кушанье – род маленьких пирожков из пресного теста с мясом, употребляемые в вареном виде perestroyka переустройство Советской экономической и политической системы piroshky печеные изделия из тонко раскатанного теста с начинкой pogrom выступление против какой-либо национальной или иной группы населения, сопровождающееся разорением, грабежом имущества и массовыми убийствами евреев в начале ХХ века to pogrom осуществлять погром Politbureau название руководящей части КПСС Presidium название руководящего органа собрания, совещания, выборного или научного учреждения prisiadka приседание с попеременным выбрасыванием ног (о пляске) proletkult культура народных масс rassolnik суп, сваренный с солеными огурцами residentura разведка resident тайный представитель разведки в каком-либо районе иностранного государства riza одежда священника для богослужения sambo спортивная борьба, отличающаяся большим разнообразием специальных приемов ( из сокращенного выражения «самозащита без оружия») samizdat самостоятельное издательство shashlik кушанье из кусочков мяса, зажаренных над огнем на вертеле, шампуре skaz род народно-поэтического повествования smetana молочный продукт из скисших сливок solod объединение национальной и православной идей solonchak продукт из проросших и смолотых зерен хлебных злаков, употребляемый при изготовлении пива, кваса solonetz почва с большим содержанием натрия solyanka кушанье из тушеной капусты с мясом или рыбой Soviet орган государственной власти в СССР, одна из форм политической организации социалистического общества sovkhoz социалистическое государственное сельско- хозяйственное предприятие ( из сокращенного выражения «советское хозяйство») sputnik космический аппарат, с помощью ракетных устройств запускаемый на орбиту в космическое пространство starets уважаемый и почитаемый старик subbotnik добровольная коллективная бесплатная работа для выполнения какого-либо общественно полезного трудового задания (по субботам) tolkach добавочный паровоз в хвосте поезда или самоходное судно, толкающее баржи, а также лоббист в СССР tovarish обращение к гражданину СССР tvorog сгустившиеся частицы кислого молока, отжатые от сыворотки ukha суп из свежей рыбы vobla небольшая промысловая каспийская рыба, разновидность плотвы vozhd общепризнанный идейный, политический руководитель zek заключенный
Application№3
Etymologicalstructure of English language.Original element Borrowed element
1. Indo-European element
2. German element
3. English element
1. Celtic (V-VI c. A.D.)
2. Latin
I group – I c. B.C.
II group – VII c. A.D.
III group – Renaissance
3. Scandinavian
(VIII-XI c. A.D.)
4. French
a) Norse borrowings
(XI-XIII c. A.D.)
b) Parisian borrowings (Renaissance)
5. Greek (Renaissance)
6. Italian (Renaissance
and late Renaissance)
7. Spanish (Renaissance
and late Renaissance)
8. German
9. Indian
10. Russian
and some others.
Application№4
Articles
Статья из журнала «MINI», дек/2005, рубрика «карьера»,стр,77.
Фрилансер:
«Дневник свободногохудожника. Когда в детстве меня спрашивали, кем хочу стать, я, делая честныеглаза, отвечала: «Космонавтом или учительницей». Но в душе уже тогда знала, чтостану фрилансером. Конечно, в то время слово это было мне незнакомо, но яверила, что идеальная работа должна: а) начинаться после обеда (ненавижу рановставать!); б) отнимать как можно меньше времени; в) располагаться недалеко отдома. Сейчас freelance находится на пике популярности…»
Статья из журнала «Личныеденьги» №2, февраль 2007, стр.26
Лэптоп:
«Идеальный подарок. Месяцназад Арман прочел в газете, что идеальный подарок – это такой подарок, окотором мечтают, но не могут себе позволить. Решение было принято сразу. Сындавно мечтал о крутом лэптопе, а уж после поступления в университет мечтапревратилась в навязчивую идею…»
Из выступления АкадемикаЕвгения Челышева, члена Президиума РАН:
Киллер, дилер.«Одно дело – экономически оправданные, естественныезаимствования, постепенно усваиваемые языком и не разрушающие его национальнуюоснову, и совсем другое – агрессивная, тотальная его «американизация».Например, совершенно неприемлемо пришедшее из американского английского языкаслово «киллер», в котором размыта негативная оценка, содержащаяся в русскомслове «убийца». Сказать человеку «ты убийца» — это вынести ему суровыйприговор, а назвать киллером это как бы просто определить его профессию: «я –дилер, ты киллер, оба вроде делом занимаемся».Статья из журнала «Psychologies» №16, май 2007,стр.52Триллер«…У Американцев – драматическо-психологический триллер. Ониведь люди действия. И фильм в отличие от нашего, меланхолически-иронического,очень энергичный…»
Статья из журнала «Личныеденьги» №2, февраль 2007, стр.21
Интернет, смс
«…Хакеры уже сейчас могутпосылать смс через Интернет, и если таких сообщений будет очень много, каналпередачи текстовых сообщений окажется перегружен…»
Доллар (стр.3)
«33 млрд. долларовсоставил на конец декабря 2006 года объем международных резервов страны,включающих золотовалютные резервы Национального Банка и средства Национальногофонда. В декабре произошел резкий рост международных резервов, который составил16,8 %..»
Статья из журнала «Astana city» №8, май 2006 стр.18
Видеокамера, дисплей.
«…Видеокамера заднеговида тоже пока редкость. При движении назад на дисплее появляется цветноеизображение с разметкой позволяющей оценить расстояние до препятствия…»
Статья из журнала «Cosmopolitan» декабрь 2005, стр. 107
Бойфренд
«…В конце концов,бойфренд и в самом деле поверит, что вы собрались пожениться: он просто былслишком взволнован и забыл подробности объяснения…»
Статья из журнала «Flight» (November 8, 1957)
Sputnik
«According toobservation data the Sputnik was given an orbital speed of about 8,000 meters per second. According to calculations which are being made more exact by directobservations, the maximum distance of the Sputnik from the Earth’s surface isover 1,500 km (about 935 miles). »
Статья из газеты «Newsweek», 1987
Glasnost
«…Hisstrategy: openness, candor, publicity – all summed up in the Russian wordglasnost…»
Статья из газеты «Economist», 1987
Perestroika
«…So long asunemployment cannot be accepted openly, it will be hard to believe thatperestroika in the Soviet Union will be…»
Статья из газеты «Canadian Tribune», 1988
Democratizatsia
«…Democratizatsia…does not mean the same thing as its English equivalent – democratization. Infact the Soviet concept of democracy is quite different and may turn out to befar more comprehensive and liberating…»
Hozyaschot
«…the firstmajor enterprises to be placed on the hozraschot system of full cost-accountingand self-management…»
Uskoreniye
«…Essentiallyuskoreniye means the Soviet state is turning to the people to create forthemselves the preconditions for scientific and technological transformation…»