The Definite Article with Class Nouns in English and in French

1. General Overview of the Category of Article in English andFrench
                  
1.1 Article. General notion
An article is a word that combines with a noun to indicate thetype of reference being made by the noun and to specify the volume or numericalscope of that reference. Article can be also thought of as a special kind ofadjective, because it combines with a noun and contributes to the meaning ofthe noun-phrase. Many linguists place the article in the category ofdeterminers. M. Ia. Blokh in his book “Theoretical Grammar of the EnglishLanguage” says “The article is a determining unit of specific nature accompanyingthe noun in communicative collocation.” The linguists L. A. Barmina and I. P.Verkhovskaya have the same idea about the article as a determiner. Theyattribute it to a syntactic class of words called determiners which modify anoun. The dictionary of Thesaurus gives the definition of the word “article” asa determiner that may indicate the specificity of reference of a noun phrase.Webster’s New World College Dictionary refers to the article as used asadjectives. Also in this context we would like to add the words of the linguistB. Ilyish who devoted a whole chapter of his book “Stroi sovremennogoangliyskogo eazika” to the study of the article. He remarks that the article isusually a separate unit which may be divided from its noun by other words,chiefly adjectives.
So, we may conclude that the first feature of the article can bethat the article is a determiner of the noun that refers to, that is why it canhave some functions of an adjective and it is used as a separate unit.
Another feature of the article is that articles, definite orindefinite, are traditionally considered to form a separate part of speech. V.L. Kaushanskaya in her book “The Grammar of the English Language” specifies thearticle as a structural part of speech. In E. M. Gordon’s book “A Grammar ofPresent-Day English” we also meet the notion of a structural word as thelinguist gives the following definition of the article: “The article is astructural word specifying the noun”.
According to these two definitions we can define the secondfeature of the article – it is a structural word.
Judging upon the definitions given by the different linguists andthe dictionaries listed above we can draw a conclusion and deduce a generaldefinition for the article that would include all its features: An article is astructural part of speech, which is combined with a noun to determine it.
1.2 Articles in English
There are two articles in Modern English which are called theindefinite and the definite article. The absence of the article, which may becalled the zero article, also specifies the noun and has significance.
The indefinite article has the forms a and an. The form a is usedbefore words beginning with a consonant sound (a book, a table, a door). Theform an is used before words beginning with a vowel sound (an apple, an hour,an aim). The article is pronounced [ə], [ən]; when stressed it ispronounced [eı], [æn].
1.2.1 The Definite Article in English
The definite article has one graphic form the, which is pronouncedin two ways: [∂ı:] before a vowel sound [∂ı: ΄æpl]and [∂ə] before a consonant sound [∂ə ΄pen]. Thisarticle is used before nouns in the plural, as well as before nouns in thesingular number.
1.2.2 The History of the Definite Article in English
Examining the definite article by M.A. Gashina’s book “EnglishGrammar Higher School” we find some words about its history. The linguist saysthat the definite article the is a weakened form of the Old Englishdemonstrative pronoun se (nominative se; dative ΄þæm;accusative ΄þone, etc.) which in Old English, besides the functionof a demonstrative, had also the function of the definite article. The form“se” was in the masculine gender, “seo”- feminine, and “þæt”-neuter. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_articles source gives the informationthat in Middle English all these kinds of the demonstrative pronoun had mergedinto þe, the ancestor of the Modern English word the. It says that inMiddle English the (þe) was frequently abbreviated as a þ with asmall e above it, similar to the abbreviation for that, which was a þwith a small t above it. During the latter Middle English and Early ModernEnglish periods, the letter Thorn (þ) in its common script, or cursiveform came to resemble a у shape. As such the use of a у with an e above it asan abbreviation became common. This can still be seen in reprints of the 1611edition of the King James “Version of the Bible” in places such as Romans 15:29or in the Mayflower Compact. The article was never pronounced with a у sound,even so written.
One of the linguists who were interested in the history of theEnglish language — Barbara M. H. Strang, in her book “A History of English”states that the definite article was by 1170 only marginally related to thepronoun system. It had two distinct types throughout the period. In most partsof the country it was indeclinable þe, later the, or at the very most itvaried between singular þe and plural þa. However, in the S and SWMid it was declinable, with three genders in the singular and up to four cases.Where it had declinable forms they were the same as those for the ‘further’-demonstrative, that, since, in fact, they had originated in a special use ofthat form. The forms set out below were in some parts only demonstrative, inothers they had double function; they are presented for reference-purposes, butthey tend to suggest far more differentiation than most speakers knew. In themasc sg there were four forms: se, subj; þene, þane, acc; þan,þene, Kt þa(Kentish), later þo, dat (i.e., some speakersreduced the case-system to three even here). The fem sg usually had threeforms: seo, si (SW and SE) subj; þa, later þo, enclitic to,oblique; þer, þære, gen. The neuter (like the 3rd personpronoun) had the same form for subj and direct obj þet or þat(according to dialect, but a tended to invade e-areas, as a weak form, or byinternal borrowing, or both); the dat was usually þan, the gen þesor þas. In the plural all the genders had subj-obj þa, later þo,dat or oblique þan, gen þere.
The linguist emphasizes that after the very beginning of MiddleEnglish period, and outside Kt, case and gender distinctions, in article ordemonstrative, occur only patchily, and then in circumstances showing thattheir historical functions have been forgotten. Otherwise, except for somepersistence of plural tho, the definite article has become fully indeclinableby the end of the period.
As the definite article comes from the demonstrative pronoun ofOld English it had preserved its demonstrative meaning that is still felt insuch expressions as nothing of the (that) kind; at the (that) time; under the(those) circumstances; for the (that) purpose; The lady (= this lady) iswaiting to see you.
Thus we can draw the conclusion that the definite article takesits origin from the Old English demonstrative pronoun se which was declinablein conformity with the gender, number and case of the noun it modified. Laterin the Middle English it changed into þe with nouns in singular and þawith nouns in plural that became the in the Present-day English. The definitearticle retained its demonstrative meaning throughout all the periods of theEnglish language development and nowadays its first and most important meaningis one of a demonstrative.
1.3 The Article in French Grammar
The etymology of the word “article” comes from Latin articulus andit means “small member”.
According to the French linguist Maurice Grevisse article is aword placed before the noun in order to mark that this noun is taken in itscomplete or incomplete determined meaning; it also serves to indicate thegender and the number of the noun it precedes.
N.B. Grevisse also says in his book “Le bon usage” that thearticle can be arranged among the adjectives as it serves to introduce the noun.
Thus, comparing with English we see that in the French grammar thearticle is also placed before the noun. It also has the function of a determiner.But, as distinct from the English article the article in French besides itsdetermination of the noun semantically has the function of determining it fromthe grammatical point of view. It serves to indicate the noun’s gender andnumber. Hence it appears the first difference between the articles in Englishand in French.
There are two types of articles in French: definite(défini)and indefinite(indéfini).
Note: it is distinguished often the third type of the article inFrench – the partitif article, but this one can be relevant by its forms to thedefinite article and by its meaning it can be belonged to the group of theindefinite article.
So, we find out the second difference between the articles of thetwo languages. The English and the French Languages have three types ofarticles and we saw that the first two types coincide in their names: definiteand indefinite. Speaking about the third type of articles in both languages itshould be noted that in English it is called zero article and in written speechit is rendered by the absence of the article but in French it is called thepartitif article which has four forms but we will speak about them in greaterlength in 1.3.3
1.3.1 The Definite Article in French
Making the parallel between the English and the French grammar wecan observe that in the French language articles agree with nouns theydetermine in gender and number.
The French definite articles (l’article défini) are:
le – with nouns in masculine, singular, le garçon;
la – with nouns in feminine, singular, la fille;
l’ – with nouns in masculine and feminine in the singular form
beginning with a vowel or mute h, l’arbre, l’ère,l’habitude, l’homme;
les – with nouns in masculine and feminine in the plural form, lesenfants.

1.3.1.1 The History of the French Definite Article
Speaking about the French definite article one should know that itwas a roman innovation. It came from Latin ille(masculine) and illa(feminine)which served as adjectives and demonstrative pronouns as well. In ancientFrance only the proclitic form of them was preserved that lost early theirfirst syllable and became unstressed.
(il)li>li− Nominative case, masculine, singular
(il)lu(m)>lo was used till the end of the XIth c. and thendeafened in le − Objective case, masculine, singular
illī>li, illos>los soon was replaced by les −masculine, plural;
illa>la− feminine, singular;
illas>les− feminine, plural.
The French definite article retains a long time the demonstrativeand the determinative meanings:
e.g.:Tresqu’en la mer cunquist la tere altaigne. (Rol.,3)
Jusqu'àla mer il conquist la terre hautaine.
He conquered the lordly land till the sea.
This is an example of the French article’s agreement with the nounin gender, number and case; at the same time the article determines the nounbeing used as ancient demonstrative: “la mer” means “this sea”= ‘the sea’.
So, we notice that the development of the French language wasinfluenced by Latin which already had some notions of gender, number and case.It should be mentioned that from the previous times the French definite articlehad the forms of masculine and feminine. It had differentiations betweensingular and plural forms. Apparently the French article had the same meaningof a demonstrative.
Since English and French are two languages from differentlinguistic families they were developed differently. The articles havedifferent origins. That is why there are many differences in theircharacteristics.
Nevertheless, both, the English definite article and the Frenchdefinite article, take their origin from the demonstrative pronoun retainingthe demonstrative meaning till nowadays.
1.3.1.2 Article élidé
One of the forms of the definite article in French is used with theapostrophe (l’) and has its own name article élidé (fusedarticle). It is used only with nouns that begin with a vowel or mute h insingular. The definite articles le, la lose their vowels in such cases and takethe apostrophe – l’, e.g. l’arbre, l’ère, l’homme, l’habitude.
1.3.1.3 The Fused Definite Article
The second type of the French definite article is named articlecontracté which can be translated into English as the fused article. Itcomes from the usage of the definite articles in masculine, singular le andplural les with the prepositions à and de. The preposition à hasthe meaning of direction and the preposition de has the meaning of possession.When these prepositions are used before the definite articles they merge witheach other and make new forms, preserving their meanings. The forms of the fused article are:
à+ le = au Je donne le livre au professeur. (I give the book to the teacher).
à+ les = aux Je donne les livres aux élèves. (I give the books to the pupils).
de +le = du le livre du professeur (the teacher’s book).
de +les = des les livres des élèves (the pupils’ books).
We can presume that the first two forms of the fused article canbe translated into English by the form of the Dative case and are rendered bythe preposition to. The forms du, des are translated into English by the Genitivecase and take the form of ´s and having the same meaning of possession asin French.

1.3.2 The Indefinite Article in French
The French indefinite articles (l’article indéfini) are:
un – with nouns in masculine, singular, un garçon;
une – with nouns in feminine, singular, une fille;
des – with nouns in masculine and feminine, plural form, desenfants.
1.3.3 The Partial Article (article partitif)
The french partial article has three forms:
du –with nouns in masculine, singular, du garçon;
dela – with nouns in feminine, singular, de la fille ;
des – with nouns in masculine and feminine, in the plural form,des enfants.
The “partitif” article does not have its exact equivalent inEnglish. It is used with mass nouns such as water, to indicate only a part or anon-specific quantity of it. As in thefollowing example :
French :Je voudrais du lait et du pain.
English : I would like some milk and some bread.
French:Voulez-vous du café ?
English: Do you want (some) coffee?
We may assume that the French partial article corresponds to theEnglish indefinite pronoun “some”.
As we mostly are interested in the definite article we will analyzeand compare only its forms, its origins in both languages. Scrutinizing thedefinite articles of the English and the French languages we can findsignificant differences in their forms. First of all one should remember thatthe English definite article takes its origin from the Old Englishdemonstrative pronoun se, whereas the French definite article has the Latinorigin and also comes from the demonstrative pronoun (ille). Another differenceis that the English definite article has one graphic form the,and the Frenchdefinite article has four forms: le, la, l’, les. One of the most importantdifferences in the definite article between the two languages is that theFrench definite articles agree in gender and number with the noun they belongto, which is not observed in English. The French definite article besides itsfour forms le, la, l’, les has another type of article that also belongs to thegroup of the definite article – article contracté which also has fourforms (au, aux, du, des).

2. Contrastive Study of the Definite Article’s Usage in Englishand
French
Before speaking about the usage of the definite article with classnouns in English and French languages we would like to present first of all thefunctions of the definite article in both languages.
2.1 The Functions of the Definite Article in English
For revealing the functions of the English definite article weconsulted the books of the following linguists as M.Ia. Blokh, E.M. Gordon and Barminaand Verkhovskaya. After studying Barmina and Verkhovskaya’s theory on thearticle we can ascertain some functions of the definite article. According tothe linguists it can have:
· the morphologic functionthat consists in serving as a formal indicator of the noun: the presence of thearticle signals that what follows is a noun.
· syntactic function. Thedefinite article may connect sentences within a text by correlating a noun itmodifies with some word or a group of words in the previous context. In theexample below the definite article has the connecting function.
John has brought a book. The book is interesting.
M. Ia. Blokh mentions that the definite article expresses theidentification or individualization of the referent of the noun: the use ofthis article shows that the object denoted is taken in its concrete, individualquality. E. M. Gordon also mentions the idea of individualization. Hedistinguishes the following functions of the definite article.
When used with countable nouns, either concrete or abstract, theEnglish definite article has two distinct functions:
1) It may be used with singular and plural nouns to show that thenoun denotes a particular object (a thing, a person, an animal or an abstractnotion) or a group of objects as distinct from the others of the same kind. Inother words, the definite article serves to single out an object or severalobjects from all the other objects of the same class. This function is calledthe individualized function of the definite article.
e. g. The car stopped. Paul got out and stretched himself.
2) The definite article may also have the generic function withcountable nouns.
With nouns in the singular it serves to indicate that the nounbecomes a composite image of the class.
e.g. The tiger has always had the reputation of being a man-eater.
With uncountable nouns, the function of the definite article canbe called restricting.
The definite article restricts the material denoted by a concreteuncountable noun to a definite quantity, portion or to a definite locality (a);it also restricts the abstract notion expressed by an uncountable noun to aparticular instance (b).
e.g. a) As we came out into the cold damp air, she shivered.
b) The work seemed to consist chiefly on interviewing young womenfor jobs in department stores.
We are mostly concerned in the functions of the definite articlewith countable nouns. Thus, we learned that the definite article has twofunctions with countable nouns: individualized and generic functions. In thefirst case it distinguishes one object from the others of the same kind, in thesecond it serves to present an object instead of the whole class as compared toother classes.
2.2 The functions of the definite article in French
1) Speaking about the French definite article it should be knownthat it serves to indicate a specific noun.
Jevais à la banque. Voici le livre que j'ai lu.
I'm going to the bank. Here is the book I read.
Thus the first function of the French definite article isdemonstrative function.
2) Besides its demonstrative meaning it has a possessive meaning:
Alexandrese frotta les yeux avec le revers du pouce, et porta les mains à sesreins. (R. Merle)
Alex wiped his eyes with the back of his thumb, and put his handson his loins.
From this example is clearly seen that the French use the definitearticle instead of possessive pronouns in English.
3) themeaning of generalization.
e.g.L’homme est plutôt un animal bienveillant quand il n’est ni jaloux niinquiet.(A. Maurois) – Man is rather awell-wishing animal when he is neither jealous nor anxious.
We can observe the difference in using the definite article inEnglish and French. In French sentence we have the noun used with the definitearticle in its generalizing function. The noun in English variant is not usedwith the definite article as in this case the noun man has a generic sense andno article is used.
4) distributivemeaning.
e.g.… Nous ne pouvons vous racheter cela à plus de deux cents francs le mètre .
We can’t buy it more than two hundreds francs per meter.
The definite article used in French sentence is translated by theterm per in English with the meaning of each.
5) It can indicate a usual fact that is repeated regularly.
e.g.Comme ça doit vous assommer de vous habiller devant elle, le matin.
Thus you have to assume that you have to dress up before her everymorning.
In this example le matin has the meaning of every morning that iswhy we translate it in English with the indefinite adjective every.
6) Before cardinal numerals it can designate approximation in themeaning of “about”. This refers to the cases when the definite article precedessuch nouns as heure (hour), ans, années (years), mois (month), etc.
e.g.Elle avais un visage si clair, un peau si tendre ; elle était bienjolie dans sa robe rose et menue, elle pouvait avoir dans les huit ans.
She had a bright face, a gentle skin, she was beautiful in herfine pink dress, and she was about eight years.
The definite article used in French is translated by thepreposition about in the meaning of imprecise number.
After analyzing the use of the definite article in Frenchsentences and studying their translations into English we discover somedifferences in the functions and meanings of the definite article in Englishand French. The differences appear in cases when the definite article in Frenchis translated in English by possessive, indefinite adjectives and prepositionsdepending on the meaning it conveys:
1. possessive meaning of theFrench definite article;
2. generalizing meaning;
3. distributive meaning;
4. indication of the usualfact;
5. in the meaning of imprecisenumber.
The only similarity that exists between the functions of thedefinite article in both languages is that of a demonstrative that serves fordenoting a single object from the others.
2.3 The Usage of the Definite Article with Class Nouns in English
As it was stated in the paragraph 1.2.1 the definite article isused before the nouns in singular and plural. The definite article can be usedwith different types of nouns: proper nouns and common nouns. We are mostlyinterested in the use of the definite article with common nouns namely the useof the definite article with class nouns. Class nouns are the nouns that denotepersons or things belonging to a class. They are countable and have twonumbers: singular and plural.
For defining the general rules of the definite article’s usagewith class nouns we consulted the books on the English grammar of severallinguists: V. L. Kaushanskaya, E. M. Gordon, Gashina, L. A. Barmina and I. P. Verkhovskaya.After looking up Kaushanskaya’s, Gashina’s and Vasilevskaya’s books we singledout the following cases of the usage of the definite article with class nouns.
The definite article can be used with class nouns:
1. When a class-noun denotes an object which is regarded by thespeaker as a definite object distinct from all other objects of a certainclass. The context or the whole situation shows that the speaker has a definiteobject in mind and therefore uses the definite article. An object is singledout in the following cases:
a) when the speaker and the hearer know what particular object ismeant. No special indication is necessary.
How did you like the play?
That means that interlocutors know which play they are talkingabout. In this case the is a kind of indicator.
b) when the speaker uses an attribute pointing out a particularobject. Such an attribute might be called a particularizing attribute. Aparticularizing attribute is used to single out an object from all the objectsof the class, to point out one particular object or group of objects. Aparticularizing attribute can be expressed by an “of”-phrase or an attributiveclause. It is always used in post-position.
e. g.: He knocked at the door of a very neat house.
The letters that I have here have come to me quite by accident.
When a noun is used with an attribute it is clear that one certainobject from the whole group is meant. The definite article precedes the nounthus helping the reader to figure out that object.
c) when the situation itself makes the object definite.
e. g.: The wedding looked dismal. The bride was too old and thebridegroom was too young.
From this example we understand that not any bride and bridegroomare meant, but those from the dismal wedding.
When an object is singled out from all the objects of a givenclass the definite article retains its demonstrative meaning, and the Englishuse the definite article much oftener than the demonstrative pronouns this orthat. This can be explained by the easiness in pronunciation. Analyzing allthese three instances we notice that the is used mostly in the function of adeterminative to distinguish an object from a number of objects similar to it.
2. The definite article is used with class nouns which denotethings considered to be unique, such as the earth, the sun, the moon. Here wehave a special case: the class consists only of one representative, andtherefore the object denoted by the noun is always definite in our mind.
e. g. The earth and the sky were already beginning to be enrichedwith the evening (Chesterton).
3. With nouns used in a generic sense.
A singular countable noun with a definite article may represent awhole class of objects, thus becoming a composite image of that class (but nota typical representative). A noun in this function is called a genericsingular. A noun used in a generic sense denotes a genus taken as a whole, athing taken as a type, a genre.
e. g. The violet is a lovely flower.
The tragedy and the comedy first appeared in Greece.
Note 1. It is also sometimes possible to use the indefinitearticle in similar cases.
e. g. A violet is a lovely flower.
This use of the indefinite article is not to be identified,however, with the generic function of the definite article. The indefinitearticle is used here in its nominating function, implying any representative ofthe class. Hence the use of the indefinite article is not equivalent to that ofthe definite article when the noun is used as a composite image of a wholeclass. For that reason the indefinite article is not possible in the followingsentences:
e. g. Now the horse has been replaced by the tractor.
“In this lecture I am going to speak about the article inEnglish”, said the professor.
Note 2. When the noun man in a generic sense no article is used.
e. g. Silas felt that his trust in man had been cruelly destroyed.(Eliot)
When the noun woman is used in a generic sense it is used with thedefinite article or occasionally without an article.
e. g. He had always been interested in that mysterious being thewoman.
(Bennett)
Woman is man’s helpmate.
A noun used in a generic sense should not be confused with a nounused in a general sense.
A noun used in a general sense denotes an object regarded as anindividual representative of a class.
e. g. A detective story helps to while away the time.
(Every or any detective story is meant here).
A noun in a generic sense denotes the whole class.
e. g. Conan Doyle is a master of the detective story.
(The detective story is regarded here as a certain genre).
These are all the cases of the usage of the definite article withclass nouns according to Kaushanskaya. Looking over Gordon’s and Barmina’s bookson grammar of the English language we can notice that they make a more detailedexamination of the usage of the definite article with class nouns used withattributes. E. M. Gordon mentions that since the choice of articles isdetermined by the context or the general situation, we should take intoconsideration attributes modifying the noun. He distinguishes two kinds ofattributes: limiting and descriptive.
A l i m i t i n g attribute indicates such a quality orcharacteristic of an object (or a group of objects) which makes it distinctfrom all other objects of the class.
A d e s c r i p t i v e attribute is used to describe an object(or a group of objects) or give additional information about it. This kind ofattribute does not single out an object (or a group of objects) but onlynarrows the class to which it belongs.
The linguist states that nouns modified by limiting attributes areused with the definite article and nouns modified by descriptive attributes maybe used with either the indefinite or the definite articles, as the choice ofarticles for countable nouns is not affected by this kind of attribute. So, wecan make the conclusion that in the majority of cases when nouns are modifiedby a limited attribute it is used with the definite article, but it appearsthat it can be used with nouns modified by the descriptive attributes.
We examined all the cases when the definite article is used withnouns modified by both kinds of attributes and selected only those that referto the usage of the definite article with class nouns.
1)The use of the definite article with class nouns modified byadjectives.
The definite article in such case is accounted for by thesituation but not by the attribute:
e. g. The woman looked at me shrewdly and there was a glint ofhumour in the dark eyes.
Adjectives in the superlative degree, however, are always limitingattributes. That is why nouns modified by the adjectives in the superlativedegree are always used with the definite article:
e.g. She was the smartest girl.
Some adjectives, adjective pronouns and adjectivized ing-formsalways serve as limiting attributes. The definite article is used before thenouns modified by them. The most important of them are: right and wrong, very,only, main, principal, central, left and right, same, coming, following,present, former and latter.
e. g. My mother was the only person whom I told what had happened.
Note 1: Class nouns modified by the adjectives next and last aregenerally used with the definite article, especially when they are followed byan ordinal numeral the definite article is obligatory.
e. g. We shall probably eat at the next table to him.
Note 2: The definite article is used with a singular class nounmodified by other if there are only two objects of the same description.
e. g. He pulled on the other glove and said he would run along tohis office.
The definite article is used with a plural class noun modified byother if there is a definite number of objects divided into two definitegroups.
e. g. My mother needed me more than the other members of thefamily.
Alongside to these kinds of adjectives proposed by Gordon Barminaand Verkhovskaya give one more case of the use of the definite article withclass nouns modified by the adjectives that are postposed, i.e. they can followthe noun they qualify. Postposition is characteristic for such adjectives andadjectivized participles as absent, present, proper, involved, concerned andsome others that function as limiting attributes.
e. g. The delegates present discussed the agenda of theconference.
2) The use of the definite article with class nouns modified bynumerals.
If a class noun modified by a cardinal numeral is used with thedefinite article, this is accounted for by the situation or context.
e. g. By candlelight the two men seemed of an age if indeed not ofthe same family.
Ordinal numerals are usually limiting attributes, so the nounsthey precede are used with definite article.
e.g. “It’s the fourth room down the corridor,” the clerk said.
Note 1: This rule does not apply to the numeral the first. Thecombination a first night and a
first prize are to be regarded as set phrases.
Note 2: It is important to remember the use of articles in thefollowing patterns with nouns
Modified by cardinal and ordinal numerals: the third chapter butchapter 3 (three), the fifth page but page 5 (five).
3) The use of the definite article with class nouns modified byparticiples.
The definite article can be used with class nouns modified byparticiples but it is usually accounted for by the context or the generalsituation.
e.g. At the corner of the street there shone the lighted windowsof a club.
4) The use of the definite article with class nouns modified bying-forms when they have the limiting meaning.
e.g. He took the path leading to the lonely cottage.
5) The use of the definite article with class nouns modified byinfinitives.
Attributes expressed by infinitives tend to be descriptive and thenouns modified by them are used with the indefinite article. Yet, sometimes,depending on the general situation or context, the infinitive may become alimiting attribute. Thus, the definite article is used.
e.g. “May be he is the man to ask about work,” she thought.
6) The use of the definite article with class nouns modified byclauses.
According to Gordon nouns can be modified by two kinds of clauses– attributive and appositive. As appositive clauses modify only certainabstract nouns we are not going to discuss them. But as for the attributive clausesGordon divides them into non-defining clauses and defining clauses.Non-defining clauses are those that can be removed from the sentence withoutdestroying its meaning. They are marked by a pause separating them from theprincipal clause. In writing they may be separated by a comma. Non-definingclauses are always descriptive and in the majority of cases are used with theindefinite article.
Defining clauses are so closely connected with the antecedent thatthey cannot be left out without destroying the meaning of the sentence. Thereis no pause between this kind of clause and the principal clause, and inwriting they are never marked off by comma. Defining attributes may be limitingor descriptive, depending on situation or context.
Barmina and Verkhovskaya do not give such a classification for theclauses. They say that the attributive clauses may be limiting or descriptive.
Anyway, all the linguists come to the conclusion that when theattributive clauses are limiting, the definite article is used with theantecedent.
e.g. He took the cigarette that Robert offered him.
7) The use of the definite article with class nouns modified bynouns in the common case.
Attributes expressed by nouns in the common case are usuallydescriptive and the indefinite article is used. The definite article also canbe used but this is accounted for by situation.
e.g. Lanny looked at the dining-room window and smiled.
8) The use of the definite article with class nouns modified byclass nouns in the genitive case.
The meanings of the definite article used with nouns in thegenitive case are the same as with nouns in the common case:
a) the specifying meaning whichdenotes a particular person or thing, as in: my mother’s picture, the river’sbed.
b) the generic meaning:
I stand in the place of the doctor. The doctor first diagnoses thepatient’s disorder (=the disorder the patient suffers from), then he recommendsa course of treatment.
9) The use of the definite article with class nouns modified byprepositional phrases.
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by anoun (at the window). A prepositional phrase may be used as a) a limiting or b)a descriptive attribute. Being used as a limiting prepositional phrase itrequires the use of the definite article:
e.g. He always felt ill at ease among the callers at his sister’shouse.
Within this type of attributes special consideration should begiven to the so-called of-phrase which is very common. Kaushanskaya callsof-phrase attributes as particularizing attributes.
As limiting of-phrase express a great variety of meanings there isno point in classifying them. The most common types of combinations with theclass nouns are: the house of my neighbor, the wife of a miner, the foot of amountain, the collar of a shirt, the shadow of a tree.
If the head-noun denotes an object which is the only bearer of theproperty expressed by the of-phrase, the definite article is used: thepresident of the club, the glow of a lamp, the murderer of Caesar, the monitorof the group, etc.
But if there are many objects of the same description, theindefinite article is used.
Sometimes, however, the definite article is used, alongside of theindefinite article, even if there is more than one object of the same description.This occurs when there is a d e f i n i t e number of component parts: the(a)leg of the table, the (a)wheel of the car, the (an) ear of a dog.
· The definite article isfound in the following patterns in which an of-phrase is preceded by one, some,any, each, many, most, none, all, several, the last, the rest, the majority.
e.g. “One of the letters is from Tom,” she said.
2.3.1 Certain Peculiarities in the Use of the Definite Articlewith Class
Nouns
Besides the cases of the usage of the definite article with classnouns listed above we should remark that there are certain instances of the useof the definite article which are to be regarded as a matter of tradition. E.M. Gordon distinguishes two cases:
1) the definite article used byreason of locality, e.g. with reference to objects that surround the speaker(or the people and things described by him). This usually refers to objectseither indoors (e.g. the corner, the window, the table, the door, thewall,etc.) or out- of-doors (e.g. the stars, the trees, the flowers, thehouses, the leaves, the birds, the bees, etc.)
e.g. As I came up our street, I saw my mother and my brotherwaving
from the window.
The trees swayed to and fro under the grey sky.
2) The definite article is usedwith class nouns denoting objects that are normally found in a particularplace. For example, when we speak about the cinema or the theatre we say: “Icouldn’t find my seat and asked the attendant to help me.”
2.4 The Usage of the Definite Article with Class Nouns in French
The French definite article is used much more often than itsEnglish counterpart.
Note: When there are two or more nouns listed in a Frenchsentence, the definite article must be listed in front of each one.
The French for the “class nouns” is les noms concrets — concretenouns. Having consulted the book of E. K. Nikolskaia and T. Y. Goldenberg“Grammaire Française” we learned that the French definite article isused:
1. Before concrete nouns whenthey designate a material in their broad sense.
Le bronze est un alliage de cuivre et d’étain.
Bronze is an alloy of copper and of tin.
Thus we see a considerable difference between the notion of classnouns in English and noms concrets in French: the nouns of material also belongto the group of class nouns in French that is not observed in English. So thereare differences in the usage of the definite article with class nouns inEnglish and French. Another example of the different usage of the definitearticle in English and French can be:
 L'essence est très chère en France. Gas is very expensive in France. J'aime la glace, le chocolat et le gâteau. I like ice cream, chocolate, and cake.
These sentences are good examples of the fact when the definitearticle is used in French with nouns in their general sense whereas in Englishthe given nouns belong to the group of material nouns and they do not get anyarticle when used in general sense.
2. Before concrete nouns whichdesignate a sort.
L’hirondelle est l’avant-coureur du printemps.
The swallow is the spring forerunner.
This example coincides with the English variant when the definitearticle is used with the nouns in their generic sense.
3. Before concrete nouns inplural for designating the totality of the objects.
Et la foule de rire, surtout les enfants et les jeunes filles. (By this example the French mean that all the girls and all thechildren enter to this crowd.)
And the laughing crowd, especially the children and the girls.
4. Before the nouns that areunique : soleil (sun), lune (moon), ciel (sky), horizon (horizon) in casethey are not individualized. The same case of the use we find in English aswell.
La terre est verte à perte de vue.
The earth is green far and wide.
5. Before the nouns thatindicate a certain object.
A noun can be determined by:
a) the context :
Comme Luc arrivait devant l’Abîme, il aperçut àl’angle du pont de bois, deux figures noires et chétives. Son coeur seserra. C’était une femme, l’air très jeune, pauvrement vêtue,et c’était un enfant, de six ans environ à peine couvert, laface pâle, qui se tenait dans ses jupes. Comme Luc s’était arrêteà quelques pas de la jeune femme et de l’enfant, il entendit ce dernierqui disait ...
This sentence presents an example of the use of the definitearticle when it points out a noun determined by the context.
b) the situation in the givencircumstances: the interlocutors are familiar with the persons and the objectsthey are speaking about:
Où peut-il être? Au réfectoire, à lasale de lecture?
Where can he be? Is he in the dining room or in the reading room?(The interlocutors speak about the rooms of the building where they are.)
c) a noun can be determined bythe attributive which is expressed by a noun or infinitive used withpreposition de:
Esmeralda se dirigea, à travers les spectateurs ébahis,vers la porte de la maison où Phoebus l’appelait, à pas lents, chancelante,et avec le regard troublé d’un oiseau qui cède à lafascination d’un serpent .
Esmeralda made her way through the perplexed audience towards thedoor of the house where Phoebus was calling her, she went slowly and her lookwas troubled as of a bird that yielded to the snake’s fascination.
“…towards the door of the house where Phoebus was calling her”stands for ‘…vers la porte de la maison où Phoebus l’appelait’. In thiscase the usage of the definite article coincides in both languages. In Englishit is the case of a prepositional phrase, namely of-phrase which requires theuse of the definite article.
d) sometimes a noun can bedetermined by a relative clause:
J’ai acheté le livre que tu m’avais recommandé.
I bought the book that you recommended me.
This case of the usage of the definite article in French coincideswith that in English when a noun is used with a particularizing attribute.
e) a noun can be determined by certainadjectives as premier, dernier, principal, essential, primordial, etc. as wellas seul, unique and all the adjectives in superlative degree:
Cristophe se mit à l’abri sous le toit avançant dela première maison . (Roland)
Cristophe hid under the shade of the first house roof.
The use of the definite article in English is accounted for the presenceof the ordinal numeral before the noun which has the function of limitingattribute.
f) a noun can be determined bythe meaning of the verb:
Je revis la grande cour sèche, le préau, la classevide. (Fournier)
I saw again a big dry court, a yard, an empty class.
The usage of the definite article in French accounts for themeaning of the verb used in the sentence that implies a repeated action, so thenouns are used with the definite article as they are already known for thespeaker. As for English the indefinite article is used as it presupposes themeaning of one.
Judging by the examples presented above we can conclude that thesimilar cases in the usage of the definite article in the English and theFrench languages are:
Ø when it is used as adeterminative of a certain object and here are some cases that coincide in bothlanguages:
a) when the context and thesituation itself make the noun definite;
b) when the noun is modified byprepositional phrases: of-phrases and other prepositional phrases in Englishand phrases with the preposition de in French ;
c) when the noun is used with aparticularizing attribute;
Ø when a noun is used in itsgeneric sense pointing out the whole class;
Ø with the nouns that areunique;
Ø when a noun is used with ordinalnumerals.
As for the differences in the usage of the definite article inFrench that we do not meet in English they are the followings:
§ the main difference thatappears between these two languages is that in French the group of class nounscontains the nouns that denote a material whereas in English this type of nounsis classified in a separate group and does not have the same rules in the usageof the definite article.
§ the definite article inFrench can be used with the noun which is determined by the verb denoting arepeated action;
§ the definite article is usedin French with material nouns, and it is not used in English.
But taking into consideration all the rest cases of the usage ofthe definite article in English there will appear many more differences aspresented above.