Наркобизнес — глобальная проблема XXI в.
Content
Introduction. 3
Drugs situation in the world; scales, major factors andtendencies of development of drugs business. 4
The drugs business characteristic: criminal groups, kindsof drugs, stages of manufacture and distribution, sale territory. 17
The characteristic of the markets of principal views ofdrugs. 20
Interrelation of drugs business with other globalproblems of mankind. 26
Conclusion. 30
Bibliography. 32
Introduction
The mankind has stepped in the XXI-st century, continuingto search for effective ways of the decision of one of the major global worldproblems — a drug trafficking. This problem costs practically before allstates. Here there are no territorial, national, religious, class, sexual orother borders.
The narcoindustry with a turn corresponding approximatelyof 8 % of world trade is steadily improved, raising technical, financialpotential, adapting advanced achievements of scientific and technical progressfor the requirements. Therefore it is no wonder that transnationalnarcosyndicates use in the criminal activity the advanced means of arms and anammunition, systems of electronic equipment, the newest methods of maintenanceof own safety.
World narcobusiness, being the most profitable (forexample, in the Netherlands the cost price of one tablet " ecstasy"makes 7-9 cents, and its retail price already $ 8-15) has also the mostpowerful and branched out mafia structure. Narcobusiness is initially doomed tointernationalism, globalisation. Bought primary raw materials in Third Worldcountries, the drug mafia should organise not only its processing in anend-product, but also goods delivery to the consumers which most part lives inthe developed countries.
Has passed time when the narcoproblem mentioned the onlyseparately taken countries. The narcotism wide circulation causes concern notonly in those governments or other states and the international organisations.The United Nations Organization, in particular, functioning in its structureManagement on struggle against drugs and criminality preventive maintenance(based in Vienna), International Crime society, the International associationof criminal law, the Interpol is engaged in drug trafficking studying, etc.
Drugs situation in the world;scales, major factors and tendencies of development of drugs business
The world has stepped in the XXI-st century. The roughprocesses of the globalisation which has captured various areas of humanability to live, as a whole have positive character and give to mankindunprecedented possibilities. But, unfortunately, occurring changes have also ashady side, allowing such troubles of the modern world as the organised crime,the international terrorism, drug business to get transnational character, toturn in «problems without passports».
Spread of drug addiction worldwide has set of aspects:political, economic, social, legal, medical, moral. Drugs – social illness of amodern society, and its exact diagnosis, understanding of all complexity of thegiven phenomenon and difficulties of struggle with it is necessary fortreatment of this illness.
Leitmotif of performances of many heads of the states andthe governments at special session of General Assembly of the United Nations inthe June, 2008, the devoted struggle against spread of drug addiction, the deepalarm sounded because spread of drug addiction on globe occurs accruing ratesand turns to global threat, comparable from the ecological. In especiallydifficult situation there are many countries with transitive economy[1].
Drug business transnationalization, its offensivestrategy on a threshold of second millennium are in many respects connected bythat to the traditional reasons generating it malicious (poverty, the politicalhopelessness, social disorder, alienation of millions people), were in thenineties added the new factors accompanying globalisation financial, bank,trading, technological, information and other areas of human activity. Thesefactors, on the one hand, are reflected in a way of life of the person, andwith another – open new possibilities for businessmen of drug business. Andthese new possibilities are reflected as in structure and ways of manufacturedrugs, and on ways of delivery, trade, consumption.
By approximate calculations, for today worldwide over 200million persons are on drugs a various kind. Including about 140 million peoplesmoke marihuana — the most widespread drug, cocaine use 13 million people, andheroin — 8 million, 30 million people’s abuse stimulators amphetamine.
The quantity of consumers of drugs increases every yearand basically at the expense of defeat by drugs of the most vulnerable part ofthe population — youth. In some countries the number of schoolboys and full ageyoung men which, by own recognition, tried to consume marihuana, makes 37 %.
Along with it the tendency of expansion of activity ofthe international criminal groupings was outlined. Thanks to the internationalcharacter and a market basis drug business faster, than legal business, reactsto these changes, using globalisation for expansion of a drug network andexpansion in all directions.
In an active of drug businessmen all advantages of shadoweconomy – tax free, absence of control, concentration of huge capitals, networkinternational structure of the organisation of corporate type which covers thebasic links of the drug industry and connects in a uniform global network ofall participants of a drug trafficking – making, consuming and providingtransit of drug cargoes of the country. And the specific goods – a drug thanksto an interdiction have the highest prices defined not by production costs, anddemand in the drug market of the consumer dependent on it and from distancefrom it to a point of production[2].
The drug industry is enough steady because of a stabledemand and brings considerable profits in connection with absence some aserious competition between the organisations which are engaged in this kind ofcriminal business. The turn of the world drug industry is estimated by expertsof the United Nations approximately in 400 billion dollars a year that makesabout 8 % of a turn of all international trade. The report of the UnitedNations on position with drugs in the world of 1997 notices that the world turnof drug business in separate years exceeds a turn of the world market of carsor the world market of ferrous metals. One only the Colombian cartels presentedmore than 500 companies, in the late nineties of the XX-th century took fromdrug traffic in the USA of 20 billion dollars of annual profit. For comparisonwe will notice that totally national budgets of Colombia, Bolivia and Peru madeat that point in time only about 9 billion American dollars annually.
Operations with drugs bring from 300 to 2000 % havearrived that does their attractive and for the transnational criminal organisations,and for separate groups of criminals, whose purpose is reception of the maximumprofit in short terms[3].Thus the drug industry is steadily improved, raising technical, financialpotential, adapting advanced achievements of scientific and technical progressfor the requirements.
Transnational drug syndicates in criminal activity usethe advanced means of arms and an ammunition, systems of electronic equipment,the newest methods of maintenance of own safety. A part of the profit receivedfrom drug traffic, drug businessmen direct on acquisition of equipment ofcommunication, cryptographic devices, and radio with use of high-speedmeasurement of frequency, receivers for revealing of radar. By estimations ofexperts, drug business annually puts about 125 million dollars in purchase new«technicians of alarm investigation». Drug cartels have perfectly armedsecurity forces in which order there is the advanced weapon, up to the portableis rocket-surface-to-air missile systems. And on September, 8th, 2000 on worldinformation channels has passed the message on detection in Colombia in workingsuburb Fakatativa (18 km from Bogota) shipyards with almost collectedтридцатиметровой a submarine on which drug businessmen were going to take outthe production. Drug business development is closely connected with traffic inarms development. Annually from drug criminals from all regions of the world itis withdrawn about 100 thousand units of fire-arms; comes to light over 500secret runways and platforms, about the same quantity of the flying machinesused by drug syndicates, gets off during flight or it will be confiscated.Despite it, it is daily carried out about 300 starts with illegal cargo ofdrugs.
Transnational scope of criminal activity allows criminalsto use channels fast and concerning reliable audio- and video contact.
So, the greatest distribution is received by cases of useof global information network Internet for the conclusion of contactlesstransactions. As reported by Reuters, drug dealers and their clients even moreoften conclude transactions in «private-room» (the closed rooms) thechats-channels protected from an extraneous sight by hardware-software means.To trace similar transactions it is almost impossible. Internet-drugstores giveout psychoactive preparations without the recipe. And, at last, the Dutch andCanadian companies through Internet trade worldwide in cannabis seeds, grassyecstasy, and ephedrine.
Use of the powerful computer techniques connected to theinternational bank electronic network, promotes distribution internationallyprocess of legalisation of criminal incomes. Even more often drug dealers«launder money» through Internet-banks.
As the international market of drugs covers all regionsof the world and almost each nation, the money-laundering, received as a resultof drug traffic, also has got transnational character. Only within the RussianFederation «is washed» from 2 to 7 billion dollars of money fromdrugs, these means then actually free move abroad. Under the statement ofofficials of Singapore, with 1999 on 2002 drug dealers it is spent throughSingapore about 100 million dollars which went through underground bank toBahrain and further into accounts of the World Bank. In 1996 in Singapore arrest has been put means of the organisations of drug dealers in the sumequivalent to 20 million of US dollars. The money-laundering estimation in Australiamakes about 3,5 billion dollars annually. Here, for example, the network onwashing up more than 20 million dollars of the receipt of heroin in New Yorkhas been opened and is confiscated more than 40 million dollars from funds ofthe criminal syndicate trading in cannabis in Australia, but being in Hong Kong[4].
In this light there is real an estimation according towhich annually in the world will be legalised the incomes received as a resultof drug business, at a rate of 300-800 bln. dollars of the USA (are washed)[5].
If it was possible to block the basic channels of washingup of drugs-dollars drug business to no small degree would lose the appeal.Fabulous incomes of a drug turn, estimated in billions dollars, it isimpossible to store «in a stocking». However to block channels it is notpossible, for there is a set of methods of washing up of drugs-dollars, and toopowerful forces make profit of these operations.
The drug trafficking actively stimulates also corruptionwith which help drugs cartels and other criminal groups involved in process of drugsbusiness, aspire to secure the business and to duck out. The profit part isspent for payoff and reception of the necessary information. Gathering of dataon the corrupted officials in law enforcement bodies and authorities, the dataabout market condition, about the prices for drugs is conducted. For example,one of not the largest Mexican cartels – Tidzhuansky – spends weekly 1 milliondollars for bribes to the Mexican judges, public prosecutors, police, army, andcustoms. The general public prosecutor of Mexico recognised that 90 % of judgesand public prosecutors in Tidzhuane «are bought» by cartel.
One of the major universal tendencies in drugs businessdevelopment also is its industrialisation. Illegal manufacture of narcoticsgets character of well adjusted industry. Depending on technological complexityof the organisation of illegal manufactures underground drugs laboratories itis possible conditionally are subdivided on handicraft which, as a rule,possess low productivity and manufacture in which is carried out withoutdifficult chemical reactions, and industrial, different by high efficiency andused for manufacture of synthetic drugs by means of difficult chemicalsynthesis.
Concerning the countries widely making narcotics, stricteconomic sanctions are entered. However the quantity of drugs laboratories interritories is reduced very slowly.
Last years of XX centuries the tendency to concentrationof manufacture of narcotics, integration of capacities on manufacture of drugswas observed. The numerous facts of detection of laboratories-giants testify toit on cocaine manufacture. So, it agree to the data published by antinarcotics’police of Colombia, in 1996 in the Central Colombia was the undergroundlaboratory-complex protected by a large armed formation is found out anddestroyed. It had several runways, has been equipped by modern system of thenotification and differed high level of the organisation of production. Annualmaximum productivity of this laboratory could make approximately 350 т cocaine.
Mobility of manufacturers of drugs increases. The factsof manufacture of drugs in the mobile laboratories which are settling down invans and by trucks are elicited. Similar laboratories seldom enough come intothe view of law enforcement bodies and, continuously making drugs in a way, todestination deliver already ready product. Capacity of one of such laboratoriesrevealed in territory of Colombia, made 70 kg of cocaine a day.
Manufacture process синтетиков has no rigid binding toraw materials sources, places of their transportation and sale. Thereof turndecentralisation synthetic is observed. Besides, the number of intermediatelinks in a chain «the manufacturer – the consumer» is considerably reduced thatreduces a risk level and costs. Synthetic drugs are much more difficult forfinding out at all stages of their illegal circulation including stages ofcreation, transportation and trade.
Last years there are new kinds of synthetic drugs. Intheir manufacture last scientific achievements are used. Considerable financialresources are invested in financing of independent researches for the purposeof search of new drugs and more perfect technologies of their manufacturing.Handicraft and unproductive manufactories are superseded by hi-tech compactlaboratories and the large industrial drug enterprises which are served by thequalified experts.
The international scale of a drug trafficking andinvolving of the increasing quantity of the states in a world network of routesof their illegal transportation have actually destroyed division of thecountries of the world existing by decades on «consuming» (thedeveloped capitalist countries) and «making», mainly developingcountries.
In the nineties the twentieth century drug business hashad development even in those countries where earlier the drug trafficking andabusing were not marked earlier by them at all. Experts of the United Nationsconnect the reasons of development of the transnational criminal organisationsincluding what primary activity is drugs business, with the advent ofcorresponding possibilities at global level that is caused by long-termtendencies of development in world politics and economy. As a result ofincrease in interdependence of the states, simplification of the internationaltrips and communications, increases of degree of a transparency of nationalborders and formation of global financial networks have appeared the worldmarkets of sale both lawful, and illegal production. It is possible to considerdevelopment and scope of activity of the organised drugs criminalitysubstantially as reflexion of the possibilities which have appeared as a resultof reorganisation of the international relations, and the changes which haveoccurred in the states. Thus, transnational drugs business can be both thereason, and a consequence of the important changes in the global policy andeconomy.
It is possible to carry the following to number ofprincipal causes and factors of development of drugs business[6]:
— Weakness of the governments, inability of the state tocarry out an effective control over territory being under their jurisdiction(for example, in Bolivia, Colombia, Peru).
— Carrying out by the state of a policy of connivance inrelation to drugs business or politicians of «silent reconciliation» inconnection with the income brought by it to a society, or from fear ofcounter-measures from outside criminals. For example, in Pakistan to the poweralmost did not interfere with opium manufacture, its transportation, actuallyindulging drugs businessmen.
— The powerful factor of development of drugs business ispolitical and economic instability. It is connected with use of considerablefinancial resources from manufacture and sale of drugs for achievement ofpolitical ends. Acknowledgement to it are cases when the finance received fromcontraband of drugs, goes on purchase of the weapon for развязывания andmaintenance of international conflicts. Interrelations of the organised crimewith terrorist and extremist groupings thus extend.
— Easing and dysfunctions of social institutes,excessively high rates of social and economic and political transformations inconnection with transition of the post socialist countries to market system ofmanaging. Absence or imperfection of the legislation or the control of itsexecution in a combination to a sharp aggravation of social and economicproblems is in these conditions the favorable environment for drugs businessdevelopment. In similar cases the most active people are actively involved in drugsbusiness with the limited financial and economic resources.
— Corruption of the governments which members get hugeprofit on illegal activity and consequently do not undertake any measures forits reduction or restraint. Distinction between corrupted and enteredarrangement to criminals the government consists only in degree of directparticipation of its members in drugs business. In a number of the countries,using the corrupted politicians, accomplices in law enforcement bodies, armies,customs, the drug mafia has achieved unlimited influence. In particular, inBolivia in 80th so-called «drugs cratia» represented, possibly, vivid exampleof a direct communication of the government with the criminal organisationwhich was engaged in drug traffic. Experts assert that it was impossible todraw a distinction between the military Bolivian government and suppliers ofdrugs. At the same time the state sovereignty in which territory there aresimilar criminal formations, provides with it reliable protection againstattempts of other countries to stop illegal activity, to liquidate the centrallinks and branches of criminal structures.
— Increasing demand for the illegal goods. So, occurrencein the early eighties the Colombian organisations on cocaine contraband partlyspeaks ultrahigh norm of profitableness of drugs business, ease of overcomingof boundary barriers to import in the USA.
— Inequality preservation between industrially developedand developing states, unprofitable position in which the last are put ininternational trade system, interfere with their normal economic progress andrealisation of the possibilities given by lawful commercial activity. Thechoice of illegal ways of business becomes attractive alternative to poverty.In particular, weakness and instability of the markets of agriculturalproduction (to Bolivias, Peru and a number of other countries) were made культивированиеby cooks and opium rather favourable employment for local peasants.Liberalisation of the foreign trade activity.
— The economic crises stimulating search of improvementof a financial position by participation in illegal business. Businessmen usethere the saved up knowledge and experience of traditional manufactures. In theconditions of crisis participation in drugs business allows to softentemporarily a problem of employment of a considerable part of the population.In these conditions activity of illegal formations starts to be perceivedpositively. For example, occurrence of the Colombian cartel as one of the maincocaine centers is caused by reduction of its role as large manufacturer of thetextile goods. Drug dealers have provided alternative employment of a labour,having won thereby liking of local population. Similar loyalty has essentialvalue as complicates work of services of counterespionage for criminals andcounteracts productivity of operations of law enforcement bodies.
Besides, researchers name the following events which havecaused changes in the organisation and activity of the industry of manufactureof drugs, and also manufacture rapid growth last two decades of the XX-thcentury:
— The sharp increase in demand at cocaine in the USA in80th years, it has led to activization of efforts of the Colombianmanufacturers of the drugs directed on eliminating the basic competitors, toexpand capacities on raw materials processing, to improve routes of delivery ofdrugs and to neutralise measures of the Colombian authorities on execution ofthe laws, concerning illegal drugs business;
— Intrusion of the Soviet armies into Afghanistan into1979 and the long conflict which has followed it promoting growth ofmanufacture of opium which in turn, provided a source of means for conductingwar against the USSR. There is a version about working out of CIA of thespecial program code-named «White jihad» during the Soviet-Afghani conflictwhich essence consisted in use of Afghanistan as base for manufacturing ofopium-raw and its transfer in republics USSR. Besides, the military conflicthas allowed drug dealers, having got of support of Mojaheds of Iran andPakistan, to use these countries as transit routes;
— Islamic revolution in Iran when the help of the Iraniangovernment to fundamentalists in Doline Bekaa has undermined antidrugoperations in Lebanon and in region as a whole and has allowed Iran to becomethe important element in system of distribution of heroin;
— Realisation of rigid antidrug measures in Colombia andMexico has in the mid-eighties led to changes in geography of manufacture andsale of drugs, manufacture has extended to Brazil, Venezuela, Ecuador, Surinam,Haiti and Paraguay became the important reloading points;
— Crash in 1988 of a mode Ne Fault in Myanma (Burma).Myanma already was for a long time the large manufacturer of opium, but thegovernment Not Fault periodically carried out retaliatory operations againstmanufacturers and dealers opium. In the conditions of the political instabilitywhich has arisen after falling of the government Not Fault, intensity ofstruggle against drugs business grew weak, and as a result to the beginning of90th years Myanma has turned to the world's largest manufacturer of opium; — A combinationof intensive measures in Colombia, followed after murder of the candidate inCarlos Galany's presidents in August, 1989, and intervention of the USA toPanama in December, 1989 have led to certain shifts in the drugs industry ofLatin America: Panama has ceased to exist as the large centre of drug-dealing,cocaine manufacture in Colombia was reduced and its manufacture in Peru hasincreased, operations with drugs in Argentina, Chile and other countries of theSouth America have extended; there was a relative easing of Medical Elinsky drugscartel and strengthening of its competitor – cartel of Cali;
— Obvious saturation of the market of cocaine in the USAin the early nineties, a consequence of that became aspiration of drugs businessmento a diversification of „product“ and the markets. Latin Americandrug pusher began to be engaged in development and expansion of the markets inEurope, Japan and on Middle East. Cartel of Cali, for example, the beginningsрекрутировать couriers in Poland for an illicit crossing of cocaine through thePolsko-German border; law enforcement bodies of Czechia and Poland have foundout the underground network of the organisations covering Poland, Czechia andthe Netherlands, the Czech-Colombian company on import of agrarian productionwas the centre of this network;
— Incessant experiments on creation of new psychotropicsubstances, such as „snow“. These drugs can be made in any place inthe presence of corresponding chemical substances;
— Drug traffic internationalisation. So, some countriesare not manufacturers of drugs and do not face sharply problems of abusingthem, but appear deeply involved in process of drug-dealing owing to thegeographical position. For example, Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan have got greatvalue in drug-dealing in Central Asia, Gyana and Trinidad and Tobago became theimportant reloading points at movement of drugs from Colombia in the USA, andNigeria – for a stream of heroin from Southeast and Southwest Asia.
Prompt growth and the international expansion of the drugsbusiness, entangling the networks all new and new countries, were the major,but not defining factor of evolution of a drugs situation in the modern world.The increasing value gets active counteraction to this harm at the internationaland national level which is carried out on the basis of numerous programs,such, as the United Nations Program under the international control over drugs,the European plan of action on struggle against drugs (1995 – 1999), the subregional Program under the control over drugs in South East Asia, theInteramerican drugs strategy, anti-drug and a policy the certifications spentby the USA and many other things. An important role softening with the periodtermination «cold war» political contradictions has played, and cooperation ofthe states in sphere of struggle against drugs business became practically morerealizable action. For example, still impracticable cooperation programs inwhich would participate simultaneously Egypt, Israel, Jordan and Palestinianautonomy (meanwhile such program is entered in February, 1999) or cooperationof India and Pakistan in questions of struggle against a drug trafficking (thiscooperation under the aegis of Management on struggle against drugs andpreventive maintenance of criminality of the United Nations has begun in thelate nineties) recently seemed.
In 1998 General Assembly of the United Nations specialsession on problems of drugs on which there were objects in view – twice toreduce consumption of drugs has been spent and it is essential to reduce theirillegal manufacture by 2008. At that time these purposes could seemunattainable, but experience of last two years testifies that search of ways ofan effective control over drugs business all the same yields positive results[7].
The report on position with drugs in the world for 2000 –work of Management of the United Nations based in Vienna on struggle againstdrugs and criminality preventive maintenance – marks the most essentialprogress in the tendency to curtailment of production of two main problemnarcotic substances in the world — cocaine and heroin.
As the report affirms that thanks to the serious approachfrom outside the majority of the countries which are the basic manufacturers’cooks and опийного of a poppy, these plants are cultivated now in smaller, thanever, number of the countries. Pino Alarchi, chief executive УБНПП, has mentionedthe following facts speaking about positive changes, occurred at the frontstruggle against drugs business[8]:
• In 2000 in Pakistan manufacture opium a poppy hasactually stopped, besides, after performance of the fifteen-year program allproduction is destroyed.
• In Bolivia for three years according to «the Basicplan», installed in 1997, the areas were reduced to 78 % illegal cultivationcooks.
• Manufacture cooks in the Peru which has sharplyincreased in 1980th years, since 1992 as promptly decreases with 50 percentreduction of deliveries of cocaine on the world market.
• For 18 months which have followed the agreement,reached between UBNPP and the President of Laos, cultivation opium in Laoswhich is one of three basic world manufacturers, it has been reduced to 30 %.
• In 1990th years cultivation opium a poppy in Vietnam itwas reduced to 90 %.
• Manufacture opium a poppy in Thailand has decreasedunder a rigid management of the king of the country supported by local socialinstitutes and the international community, in particular, by the Program ofthe United Nations under the international control over drugs and Management onstruggle against drugs and preventive maintenance of criminality
• the Areas occupied with crops opium of a poppy havereached the lowest level since 1988, i.e. in 2009 crops опийного a poppy occupiedthe areas, on 17 % smaller, than in 2000. The areas on which it is cultivatedthe cook, too have reached the lowest level since 1987, and in 2009 cooksoccupied crops on 14 % of less areas under crops, than in 2000.
• the share of illegal drugs manufacture in economy ofthe basic countries-manufacturers of drugs Has decreased. Even in thosecountries where the level of production of narcotic substances all the same hashigh indicators, the share of manufacture of drugs in gross national productfalls – in Colombia it has fallen to 2,5 % after has risen on 7 % from themiddle of 1980th years.
• By the end of last decade consumption of drugs in thedeveloped countries was stabilised or has decreased; in comparison with thelast decade cocaine consumption in the North America has fallen, abusing heroinin the Western Europe was stabilised.
«Has come to change time our sight at drugs, — the chiefexecutive of UBNPP Pino Arlachi speaks. — the World community should refuse thepsychology of the despair which has captured minds of generation, and tobelieve that nothing can return us back and the more so will force us to stopnothing on the reached. We should concentrate on the pragmatically, integrated,long-term approach to reduction in demand and offers concerning illegal drugs.Joint efforts we can really reach within eight years of two purposes –essential reduction of demand for drugs and destructions of manufacture cooksand opium a poppy»[9].
Thus, despite all extending expansion of drugs business,long-term experience of many countries of the world on search of ways of aneffective control over it already now allows to see positive results. And,probably, in the long term the international community can fix the firstsuccesses in struggle against a drug trafficking and deepen the positivetendencies traced on a boundary of centuries.
The drugs businesscharacteristic: criminal groups, kinds of drugs, stages of manufacture anddistribution, sale territory
Illegal activity on manufacture and spread of drugaddiction is now one of the most widespread sources of incomes of thetransnational criminal organisations. And the drugs business industry hasdefined substantially dynamics and the general prospects of development of thetransnational organised crime in the end of the XX-th century.
The virtual (actual) corporation which is so persistentlypropagandised by theorists of management as leading competitive enterprisestructure of XXI century, has already found the real embodiment: 1) drugsbusinessmen develop the general network structure of the independent companies;2) they communicate, professional skills, price control methods; 3) open accesson the markets each other; 4) unite the potentials in attempts of creation anduse of the new markets in various regions of the world.
Among experts there are disputes on drugs cartels concernwhat type of the organisation. Experts of Management in struggle against drugsof the USA define cartel as «the big corporation having a number ofvice-presidents». Each of them heads any branch or „the consortium“which members work together when it is them arranges. When necessitydisappears, they operate at own risk. The American magazine „Time“considers cartel «confederation of criminal families», and the Colombianmagazine „Semana“ characterises it as «federation of numerousindependent groups which conclude from time to time the strategic unions».Experts of an English weekly journal „Economist“ reject thesedefinitions, declaring that the term „cartel“ simplifiesorganizational structure of the corporations which are engaged in the drugs trafficthat quite often conducts to errors in struggle against them. The Chileanexperts giving a great attention to the given problem underline transnationalcharacter of drugs business: «the Drugs traffic is not one more kind of illegalactivity, which great variety. This huge and difficult transnational enterprisewhich generated the new phenomenon in the modern world, namely so-called drugseconomy»[10].
Many analysts consider that the internationalnarcooperations left far for frameworks of purely „economicactivities“. One of researchers of this problem, James Millz,characterises drugs business as follows:« The international industry of drugsis actually at all and not the industry, it is empire. Sovereign,self-satisfied and haughty it is underground empire though and often torn apartby internal struggle, always addressed to the world community the ralliedfront. Today it showed herself to the world so immensely money-grubbing andruthlessly exploiter, as well as any imperial state of a XIX-th century, soextensive, as well as British Empire, so capable to resolute rallying, as wellas the American republic. Aggressive and violent by the nature the undergroundempire has own armies, diplomats and reconnaissance services, banks, merchantmarine fleets and airlines. She aspires to expansion of the domination by allways – from illegal subversive activities before open war ».
At all variety of cartels in them the fear cast-irondiscipline, because punishment one – death reigns. Survivability of thetransnational criminal organisations also is to no small degree connected bythat, performing the operations, they completely ignore borders of the states,the national sovereignty while the international and national forces combatingthem, are obliged to operate by the strict rules established by theseattributes of statehood.
The transnational organisations which are engaged indrugs business, have certain commodity markets not only in the territorialrelation, but also are frequent by „production“ kinds (heroin,cocaine, marihuana, etc.) Besides, they can be substantially differentiatedfunctionally, on production phases and spreads of drug addiction.
Parts of transnational organisations are focused onmultistage process: from manufacture before realisation of any one drug (forexample, heroin). The control over all chain in the drugs business industry:from cultivation drug contents plants and manufacture of natural or syntheticdrugs before their sale and gain legalisation – allows such organisations toweaken actions of law enforcement bodies on drug trafficking suppression andrepeatedly to raise profit on a difference of the prices between wholesale andretail. A vivid example such ТПО are the Colombian drugs cartels which, as amatter of fact, represent industrial concerns on manufacture of cocaine fromraw materials growing in the South America. They supervise export of the madecocaine on the markets of the USA, Canada and Europe.
Others transnational organisations prefer to carry outactivity only at separate stages of a drug trafficking. So, for example, theNigerian criminal organisations are engaged basically in transportation anddistribution of different kinds of drugs. Nigeria continues to remain the basiclink in drug-dealing structure on the African continent, and also the mainreloading point through which drug traffic between the countries East and theWestern world is carried out. The Mexican cartels, without being engaged inmanufacture of drugs, carry out only their transportation and distribution. TheTurkish organisations are known for processing of heroin and its delivery incountries of Western Europe.
Thus, drugs business is multidimensional, its characteristicshould be carried out on several parametres: to kinds of drugs, stages of theirmanufacture and distribution, manufacture and sale territories, the basicroutes and ways of delivery, change of tendencies of these parametres for thelast years.
The characteristic of the marketsof principal views of drugs
According to the experts, today in the world it is madefrom 1 to 1,5 thousand t chlorohydrin cocaine. The basic consumers of a drug — the USA, Europe, Japan, Hong Kong. In the United States which is the heavy userof cocaine in the world, according to the Interpol, is late more than 70 % ofillegal deliveries of a drug. The basic directions of cocaine contraband — theAmerican-Mexican border and Florida. A parity „volume — the price“does cocaine by one of the most favourable in drugs business. It became one ofthe reasons of the greatest level of integration and rigid structurization of acocaine drug mafia (cartels) in comparison with suppliers of other kinds ofdrugs[11].
In 2009 the volume of withdrawals of cocaine has madenearby 495 t that on 33 % more than in 2008. The cocaine most part is stillwithdrawn on the American continent, mainly in the countries adjoining on thestates — manufacturers of cocaine: Chile, Ecuador, the countries of CentralAmerica, Venezuela and Paraguay. In 2009 55 % of all cases of withdrawal ofcocaine it was necessary to the South America (including Central America andCaribbean basin), 28 % — to the North America and 17 % — to Europe. Steadygrowth of volume of withdrawals of cocaine in Europe that reflects the basicchanges in structure of a turn of cocaine became the most amazing tendency oflast years[12].
Cocaine transportation is usually carried out bytraditional means: with use of the drugs couriers transporting cargo on commercialairlines. The Nigerian groupings participating in a transfer of cocaine in thecountries of Europe, Asia and Africa, since 1991, began to involve in theactivity of citizens of other states, such as the USA. Similar practice of useas drugs couriers not citizens of Nigeria, and also attraction of persons fromthe countries consuming drugs, proceeds already more than 10 years.
Larger parties hide in container cargoes which send toEurope and the USA sea transport. Usually the commercial vessels transportinglawful cargoes are for this purpose used, which sheer in the high sea in adirection of the countries of Caribbean basin to take away cargo of cocainewhich then is delivered in the largest seaports or is forwarded through seacoastal lines.
In total for 2009 it has been made opiat on 747 milliondollars, and 80 % — in Afghanistan (about 600 million dollars). At global levelcultivation опийного a poppy has increased on 16 %, basically at the expense ofincrease in crops in Afghanistan. In South East Asia since 1998 the tendency todecrease культивирования proceeds.
In 2009 more than 67 % of universal crops were inAfghanistan. The area of the cultivated fields here has increased from 80thousand in hectare in 2008 to 131 thousand in hectare in 2009. Now illegalcrops are in all 34 provinces of the country. Withdrawal опиатов (heroin,морфина and the opium, expressed in a heroin equivalent) at global level hasincreased in 2008 by 33 % in comparison with level of 2007. This increasebecame a consequence of doubling of volumes confiscated морфина that hasreflected renewal of large-scale cultivation and processing опийного a poppy inAfghanistan in 2007. Heroin withdrawal has increased by 10 % (53,3), opium — on38 % (134) and morphinin 77 % (43,7) from total amount confiscated opiat[13].
The volume of withdrawals in the Western Europe hasdecreased on 13 % and has made 19,4t. It has been most of all confiscated inGreat Britain and Italy — the largest European markets опиатов. In spite of thefact that the price for heroin here continues to fall (69 euros for gramme in2006, 63 euros in 2007 and 60 euros in 2008), the markets of the Western andCentral Europe remain the most profitable places of sale of this drug.
As to abusing heroin, position in countries of WesternEurope either remains stable, or (consumption) decrease was marked. The largestmarket of heroin in Europe is, most likely, Russia: total number of the personswho are on drugs, makes, by estimations, from 3 to 4 million, 1/3 from which — the persons abusing heroin.
Abusing opium continues to increase in China. In2008-2009 the number of the registered addicts increased and has exceeded 1million persons that make 15-fold increase during 2005-2007. The message on themost considerable decrease in level of abusing опиатами has during the lastyears arrived in 2004 from Oceania. This tendency remained throughout 2005 and2006.
Marihuana, hashish are made of cannabis, hashish oil.Unlike cooks and opium poppy, the hemp is cultivated practically worldwide thatis caused by its wide prevalence and unpretentiousness. Cannabis, being enoughsoft drug, always was popular at consumers.
The basic manufacturers of marihuana are: in Africa — Nigeria,Malawi, Lesotho and Swaziland; in America — Mexico, Canada, Jamaica andColombia; in the Central Asia — Kazakhstan and Kirghizia; in the Near East — Egypt and Lebanon; in Southern Asia — India; in South East Asia — Cambodia,Thailand and Philippines[14].
The North America, most likely, — the largestmanufacturer of marihuana in the world, however this market is isolated: themost part of the made is consumed on a place. According to administrativebodies of the USA, 2/3 local demands for marihuana are satisfied at the expenseof manufacture in the country, 56 % of imported marihuana arrive from Mexico,20 % — from Canada.
Management researches on struggle against drugs andcriminality preventive maintenance have shown that about 1/3 universalmanufactures of marihuana it is necessary to the North America that makes 14thousand т. On the second place on volume of made marihuana Africa of-12thousand т (28 % of total amount). Less large, but important manufacturers — Southern Asia (9 %) and the Central Asia (5 %).
Morocco — the largest manufacturer of hashish supplyingthe West European market. Researches of 2004 have shown that in comparison withlevel of 2006 decrease культивирования cannabis on 10 % is observed, undercannabis crops has been occupied 120,5 thousand in hectare, whereas in 2003-134thousand in hectare. From the collected crop in 2007 it has been made nearby2760 т hashish. Despite the given small decrease, the tendency to growth as inmanufacture, and the withdrawal volume, begun still in the early nineties thelast century, proceeds.
The drugs having the widest turn all over the world,still there are two products of cannabis: marihuana and pitch of cannabis(hashish). The cannabis turn mentions almost all countries of the world. In themajority of the countries the volume of withdrawals of cannabis surpassesvolume of withdrawals of other kinds of drugs. The volume of the withdrawnproducts of cannabis in 2007 on 24 % more than in 2006 also is the greatestsince 1984. It exceeds volume of withdrawals of 90th years more than twice, andalso level of 1999 — on 46 %. The universal volume of withdrawals of hashishhas made in 2009 1361 т that on 25 % there is more than 2008. The volume ofwithdrawals basically has increased in the north of Africa (63 %), in the NearEast (21 %) and in Europe (26 %)[15].
As already it was told above, cannabis remains to one ofthe most widespread drugs in the world: only in 2003 it consumed more than 161million persons that make 4 % from an aggregate number of aged people of 15-64years in the world. It is necessary to notice that from cannabis productsmarihuana uses the greatest popularity. Cannabis uses the greatest demand inOceania, the North America and Africa. Cannabis consumption continues to growin the world: 46 % from an order of 100 interrogated countries have declaredgrowth of consumption and only 16 % — about its decrease. In particular it hasmentioned the countries of Latin America, Caribbean basin and Central America,Western and the Eastern Europe and some countries of Asia.
Some groups of the preparations having a various spectrumof action concern synthetic drugs — from stimulators to барбитуратов, being, asa matter of fact, somnolent preparations. A variety of drugs of chemicalsubstances used for manufacture, interchangeability of initial componentsprovide availability and rather low production costs синтетиков. As initial componentstheir uncontrollable analogues that reduce a risk level can be used.Consumption of synthetic drugs — such as „ecstasy“ and amphetamine — steadily grows all over the world, partly because people do not realise degreeof their danger.
By estimations, in 2008 the universal volume of outputmethamphetamine and amphetamine has made nearby 422 t, and a volume of output» ecstasy " — 90 t (basically MDMA). Thus, an annual volume of outputof stimulators amphetamine a number (САР) above corresponding indicators onheroin, but more low — on cocaine. The basic manufacturers methamphetamine areEast and South East Asia (including Myanma, China and Philippines) and theNorth America (the USA and Mexico). The basic manufacturers amphetamine and" ecstasy " are in Europe (78 %). The Netherlands (the largestmanufacturer), Belgium, Poland concern their number, the states of Baltic andGermany[16].
In manufacture САР which universal volume has grown forlast decade, the basic place occupies methamphetamine, and then follow«ecstasy» and amphetamine. In 2008 11253 underground laboratorieshave been liquidated. More than 80 % from them made methamphetamine. In theearly nineties this share did not exceed 20 %. The tendency to decrease in2007-2008 was replaced by growth of volume of withdrawals amphetamine with 13%. Large withdrawals have been made in Thailand (20 %), China (18 %), the USA(14 %), Philippines (10 %), Great Britain, the Netherlands and Australia (on 6%).
In Asia the consumption problem amphetamine costs on thesecond place after consumption опиатов: all 2/3 of consumers’ amphetamine andmethamphetamine live here. In some countries preparations amphetamine groupsbecame more popular some heroin. In 2008 amphetamine and methamphetamine usedabout 26 million persons that makes 0,6 % from world number of persons at theage from 15 till 64 years. Whereas «ecstasy» – 7,9 million persons.
Consumption «ecstasy» now basically isconcentrated in Europe and the North America. The western and the CentralEurope is the consumer of 1/3 world volumes «ecstasy». Hardly morelow a consumption level in the North American countries — 30 %. All last decadeuniversal consumption «ecstasy» steadily grew and, most likely, willcontinue the growth the next years though and not so it is prompt as, forexample, in the late nineties. Invariable popularity and, as consequence, usedistribution «ecstasy» in many developing countries remain. The turnof this branch of the drugs industry is estimated in 65 billion dollars a year[17].
Capacities of the laboratories intended for manufactureof heroin, allow making in parallel amphetamine. In the Western Europe, especiallyin the Netherlands and Great Britain, small laboratories of the big capacityare extended. Manufacture of stimulators in the states of Baltic, Bulgaria, theCzech Republic, Mexico, Poland and the USA has extended.
As a whole synthetic drugs occupy a leading positionamong other groups of narcotic and strong substances. They do not demand longcultivation and the possible losses connected with it (for example, as a resultof a drought, destruction of plantations, etc.); the minimum volume of substance(the dose can make a milligramme share) promotes more safe transportation, andthe wide range of consumers provides high incomes. Besides, scientific andtechnical progress allows to synthesise drugs of new generation, cheaper andstronger.
Despite positive tendencies of decrease in manufacture ofdrugs in some countries, noted in the report of the United Nations on positionwith drugs in the world for 2004, drugs business continues to remain a highlyremunerative kind of transnational, criminal activity. Manufacture of drugs ofnew generation allows to reduce the prices and to involve in an illegal drugsturn the increasing quantity of people. The structure of the transnationalorganisations which are engaged in drugs business, helps to duck out easily, endowingonly local links of retail trade and couriers. The transnationality ofcharacter of activity does not allow jurisdictions of the separate countries tostruggle effectively with drugs business. Thus drugs business activelystimulates other kinds of transnational criminal activity.
Interrelation of drugs businesswith other global problems of mankind
The problem of illegal manufacture of drugs very closelyintertwines with other global problems of mankind. This distribution of AIDS,financing of activity of terrorists, organised crime development as a whole.
One more problem closely connected with a drugtrafficking and having global character – polarisation of the states, theincreasing deepening of an industrial inequality. In a context of a problem acamp of «the third world» attempt to consider an illegal drugs turn in theReport of the United Nations on position with drugs in the world for 2000 ismade. According to experts of the United Nations, that geographicallymanufactures of drugs more and more concentrates in territory of such states –not simply coincidence. To approach to it is necessary not from that positionthat the states of „the third world» intentionally are engaged in drugsmanufacture – are not present, illegal manufacture of drugs – only a symptom ofdeep problems of these countries, and a drugs problem – one of the moststubborn[18].
It concerns those states, whose institutes are so weakthat cannot organise effective internal regulation and external safety, to thestates incapable or doing not wish to provide protection to all levels ofpopulation. Besides, now the globe is shaken with 250 political conflicts ofvarious intensity, nearby 30 from them have interstate character. Weakness ofthe states gives favorable possibilities for the organised criminal groups. Thecriminality, corruption of the state institutes, and, as consequence, lawsgrows cease to play a role. After only the organised crime starts to feel theforce and to be convinced of it, about the lawful and effectively functioningstate cannot be and speeches. The similar criminalised state formations areleast interested in observance of human rights. If to the state there wassomething similar, restoration of normal conditions – the long, difficult andexpensive process directed not only on construction of the state institutes,but also on elimination of contradictions among the country population, mutualdistrust eradication.
All aforesaid causes involving of the population of thestates of “the third world» in process of illegal manufacture of drugs.From this point of view, cultivation an opium poppy for the peasant inAfghanistan – search of ways of a survival in severe world around in theconditions of the long internal state conflict, stable conditions and dailythreat for a life. In other cases manufacturers of drugs pay original „tax“from the profit, going on needs of insurgent groups, such as Revolutionaryarmed forces of Colombia. In both cases manufacture of drugs is the tool forachievement of wider purposes. The cook or opium poppy plays here only a roleof the goods which can be sold well.
Undoubtedly, the decision of a problem of illegalmanufacture of drugs should be accompanied by a number of other measuresdirected to the aid of the states of „the third world» in overcoming ofdifficult internal conditions. The international community measures to povertyprevention, to population safety, and if circumstances develop favorably, toconstruction in these countries of normally functioning state institutes shouldbe taken.
And in a context of a problem of the states of “thethird world» it is necessary to consider threat which especially sharply facesrecently to mankind – interaction between drugs businessmen and terrorists.Both the terrorism and a drug trafficking threaten a life of millions people,stability of the state institutes, national safety.
So, the co-ordinator of US State department on struggleagainst terrorism Michael Shihan has declared at subcommittee session oncriminality of Legal committee of the House of Representatives: «Drug dealersand manufacturers of drugs, as well as the international criminals… Searchfor such corners on globe where they could operate with impunity without thecontrol from outside the authorities. It is no wonder that often takes place abow between those who is engaged in terrorism, and those who participates inother international forbidden kinds of activity»[19].
In connection with the tendency of steady reduction offinancial „injections“ from outside the traditional states-sponsorsof terrorism terrorists even more often resort to other sources of financing,such as manufacture and sale of drugs. And last decade was marked by thefurther consolidation and development of mutually advantageous cooperationbetween terrorist groups and suppliers of drugs, and also more and more wideparticipation of terrorist groups in transportations of drugs with a view offinancing of the operations.
Both terrorists and drugs businessmen bring»mite" in these mutual relations. The terrorists possessingexperience of semi military operations, supply drugs businessmen with theweapon; suppliers of drugs are used as «the milk cows», providing toterrorists access to the financial sources essentially surpassing their usualchannels of reception of money. Drugs businessmen also possess experience ofillegal sending and money-laundering. Thus, drugs business and terrorism inescalating degree operate in common.
Almost all largest groups of insurgents-terrorists relyon delivery of drugs carried out in this or that form as on a method ofreception of necessary means. In addition to it, drug traffic is connected withillegal delivery of the weapon and other forms of contraband. The list of theorganisations such, undoubtedly, is headed by Revolutionary armed forces ofColombia (РВСК) and the National liberation army (НОА), become, apparently, thesample for imitation, and other terrorist groups including groups of Islamitehaving religious motivation, follow today their example. So, the talib mode inAfghanistan allowed to operate in the territory Ben Laden and to otherterrorists, encouraged drug traffic and got from it profit. Some Islamic extremistsconsider drugs business as the weapon against the West and one of sources ofincomes for financing of the activity.
Other groups, wishing to use «drugs-dollars»,«Sendero Luminoso» («the Light way») in Peru, the Kurdish workers'party (РКК) to Turkey, «Hezbollah» in Lebanon, «Tigers of clearing ofTamila» in republic Sri Lanka, the Irish republican army (ИРА) in GreatBritain, Incorporated army of the state Va in Burma, various extremist bothterrorist groups and terrorists-singles in the USA are.
Drug traffic provides receipt from the USA and Europehuge riches in some regions of Latin America, Asia and Middle East. In effect,drugs give the chance to subsidise activity of terrorist groups worldwide.
Conclusion
The problem of consumption of drugs gets global and moreand more menacing character. Drugs business to some extent can be compared tothe international terrorism, and unique distinction between them consists onlythat terrorists destroy people in arms, and drugs businessmen kill and willcripple human lives, using narcotics.
Growth of manufacture and spread of drug addiction in theworld speaks following reasons:
•In the conditions of political and economic integration,development of international trade, increase of a transparency of internalborders by more free there is a movement of the goods, financial streams, thecapital, population shift. These factors are actively used by criminalstructures for working out of new routes and perfection of methods of a transferof drugs;
•Development of a science and occurrence of a newinformation technology expand possibilities of criminal groupings forapplication of modern techniques, including computers and шифраторы, mobilephones and other communication facility that substantially raises security ofcriminal structures and reduces percent of disclosing of the crimes connectedwith manufacture, a transfer and spread of drug addiction;
•Increasing distinction between «the richnorth» and «the poor south» is actively maintained by drugsbusiness for expansion of manufacture of drugs on the African continent, inregion Central and the South America, in the countries of South East Asia.
The wide circulation has received the use of drugs amongyouth. As a whole such tendency is shown: middle age of the persons, for thefirst time tried drugs, decreases, and total number of new consumers ofnarcotics increases.
The youth basically consumes hashish, however even moreoften in a combination to other excitants. The increasing popularity is gotso-called by «club drugs» («club drugs») type ketamine, andalso psychotropic substances of type MDMA («ecstasy»). Advantage ofthese narcotics consists that they are cheaper in comparison with the sameheroin or cocaine and they can be used in various variations.
Efforts of a drug mafia had been created the steady drugstraffic penetrating almost all territory of the country. For advancement ofdrugs to consumers’ underground retail networks which actively used not onlystreet, but also schools, clubs, discos have been organised, forming thelarge-scale market of consumption of narcotics.
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