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Unit 1 Articles The use of articles in English is complex, and there are a lot of exceptions that need to be remembered and learned. Here are the basic rules. 1 Aan Use aan to refer to a singular countable noun which is indefinite either we don t know which one, or it doesnt matter which one. They live in a lovely house. Im reading a good book at the moment. She s expecting a baby.

Use aan to describe what something or someone is. Thats an instrument for measuring distance. She s a lawyer. 2 The Use the before a singular or plural noun, when both the speaker and the listener know which specific object is being referred to. They live in the green house on top of the hill. The book I m reading is all about the emancipation of women.

Mind the baby She s near the fire. The sweater I bought is blue. Use the before a noun if it is the only one the Queen, the Earth, the Atlantic. Also use it with certain public places, especially when referring to them in a general way I went to the theatre last night. I have to go to the bank. It should also be used when referring to general groups of people the

French, the rich and famous 3 Zero article Use no article with plural and uncountable nouns when talking about things in general. Compare the use of articles in the following sentences. Money is the root of all evil. general Put the money on the table. specific Love conquers all. general. The love I have for you will last for ever. specific Gas is cheaper than electricity. general I forgot to pay the bill, and now the gas has been cut off.

specific 4 Final points Notice the difference between the use of articles in the following sentences My daughter is at school. The meeting will be held at the school. I go to church on Sundays. The firemen went to the church to put out the fire. He was rushed to hospital immediately. I m going to the hospital to visit him. The use of the emphasises the place simply as a building.

The use without the suggests that the place is being used for its proper function as an institution, i.e. a place of learning, healing etc. Pubs, hotels, theatres, and cinemas usually have the the Prince William the London Hilton the Albany Empire the Odeon Some geographical areas have the. seas the Mediterranean rivers the Seine the Mississippi island groups the Seychelles mountain groups the

Alps deserts the Sahara Streets, roads, and squares etc. in towns usually have no article. Oxford Street Portobello Road Hyde Park Leicester Square Victoria Station Other nouns which take no article are lakes Lake Superior, Lake Victoria countries Spain, Norway, China continents Asia, Europe The following types of noun take no article when referred to generally

games squash, football, chess academic subjects medicine, literature, physics abstract nouns freedom, understanding meals dinner, tea, breakfast Compare these sentences Do you prefer hockey or football The football they play in America is different from the kind they play in England. Dinner is usually at eight o clock. The dinner they served yesterday was the best

I remember. Practice 1 Fill each gap if necessary with a suitable article. 1 - What s her job - She s teacher. 2 Britain is island. 3 I ask question 4 What do you usually have for lunch 5 Is there life on Mars 6 Can you tell me time, please 7 air is so fresh today. 8 She has long brown hair. 9 Is she English 10 Where s bag

It s gone 11 Would you like coffee 12 She works six days week. 2 In this exercise you have to put in a an or the. Example There was a man and a woman in the room. The man was English but the woman looked foreign. She was wearing a fur coat. 1 I bought newspaper and magazine. newspaper is in my bag but

I don t know where magazine is. 2 My parents have cat and dog. dog never bites cat but cat often scratches dog. 3 I saw accident this morning. car crashed into wall. driver of car was not hurt but car was quite badly damaged. 4 When you turn into Lipson Road, you will see three houses red one, blue one and white one. I live in white one. 5 We live in old house in middle of the village. There is beautiful garden behind house. roof of house is in very bad condition.

3 Read these sentences carefully. Some are correct, but some need the perhaps more than once. Correct the sentences where necessary. Examples Everest was first climbed in 1953. Italy. Wrong the north of Italy 1 Last year we visited Canada and United States. 2 Africa is much lager than Europe. 3 South of England is warmer than north.

4 We went to Spain for our holidays and swam in Mediterranean. 5 Tom has visited most countries in western Europe. 6 A friend of mine used to work as a reporter in Middle East. 7 Next year we are going skiing in Swiss Alps. 8 Malta has been a republic since 9 Nile is longest river in

Africa. 10 Ireland. Unit 2 Prepositions Prepositions of place and directions Main points You normally use prepositional phrases to say where a person or thing is, or the direction they are moving in. You can also use adverbs and adverb phrases for place and direction. Many words are both prepositions and adverbs. 1 You use prepositions to talk about the place where

someone or something is. Prepositions are always followed by a noun group, which is called the object of the preposition. abovebelowinoppositethroughamongbeneathi nsideoutsideunderatbesidenearoverunderne athbehindbetweenonroundHe stood near the door. Two minutes later we were safely inside the taxi. Note that some prepositions consist of more than one word. in betweenin front ofnext toon top of There was a man standing in front of me. The books were piled on top of each other.

2 You can also use prepositions to talk about the direction that someone or something is moving in, or the place that someone or something is moving towards. acrossintopasttoalongontoroundtowardsbac k toout ofthroughupdownThey dived into the water. She turned and rushed out of the room. 3 Many prepositions can be used both for place and direction. The bank is just across the High Street. place I walked across the room. direction

We live in the house over the road. place I stole his keys and escaped over the wall. direction 4 You can also use adverbs and adverb phrases for place and direction. abroadhereundergroundeverywhereawayindoo rsupstairsnowheredownstairsoutdoorssomew heredownwardsthereanywhereSheila was here a moment ago. Can t you go upstairs and turn the bedroom light off Note that a few noun groups can also be used as adverbials of place or direction.

Steve lives next door at number 23. I thought we went the other way last time. 5 Many words can be used as prepositions and as adverbs, with no difference in meaning. Remember that prepositions have noun groups as objects, but adverbs do not. Did he fall down the stairs Please do sit down. I looked underneath the bed. but the box had gone Always put a sheet of paper underneath. Prepositions of place at, in, on

Main points You use at to talk about a place as a point. You use in to talk about a place as an area. You use on to talk about a place as a surface. 1 You use at when you are thinking of a place as a point in space. She waited at the bus stop for over twenty minutes. Where were you last night At Mick s house. 2 You also use at with words such as back , bottom , end

, front , and top to talk about the different parts of a place. Mrs Castle was waiting at the bottom of the stairs. They escaped by a window at the back of the house. I saw a taxi at the end of the street. You use at with public places and institutions. Note that you also say at home and at work . I have to be at the station by ten o clock.

We landed at a small airport. A friend of mine is at Training College. She wanted to stay at home. You say at the corner or on the corner when you are talking about streets. The car was parked at the corner of the street. There s a telephone box on the corner. You say in the corner when you are talking about a room. She put the chair in the corner of the room. 3 You use in when you are talking about a place as an

area. You use in with a country or geographical region When I was in Spain, it was terribly cold. A thousand homes in the east of Scotland suffered power cuts. a city, town, or village I ve been teaching at a college in London. a building when you are talking about people or things inside it They were sitting having dinner in the restaurant.

You also use in with containers of any kind when talking about things inside them. She kept the cards in a little box. 4 Compare the use of at and in in these examples. I had a hard day at the office. at emphasises the office as a public place or institution I left my coat behind in the office. in emphasises the office as a building There s a good film at the cinema. at emphasises the cinema as a public place

It was very cold in the cinema. in emphasises the cinema as a building. 5 When talking about addresses, you use at when you give the house number, and in when you just give the name of the street. They used to live at 5, Weston Road. She got a job in Oxford Street. Note that American English uses on He lived on Penn Street. You use at when you are talking about someone s house.

I ll see you at Freds house. 6 You use on when you are talking about a place as a surface. You can also use on top of . I sat down on the sofa. She put her keys on top of the television. You also use on when you are thinking of a place as a point on a line, such as a road, a railway line. a river, or a coastline. Scrabster is on the north coast. Oxford is on the

A34 between Birmingham and London. Practice 1 Put the correct preposition into each gap. Education When my grandmother was at school, she had to learn everything a heart, and even years later she could recite countless poems b memory. She was discouraged c thinking d herself, and concentrated simply e learning facts. The teachers were very strict f pupils in those days. My grandfather confided g me that he was expelled h school i playing truant just once.

It is always worthwhile for governments to invest j education. Nobody should be deprived k a good education, and everybody should benefit l it. Nothing can compensate m a bad start in life. Pupils n public schools still account o many of the students at Oxford and Cambridge University. Until quite recently these universities seemed to be prejudiced p pupils from state schools. Many people objected very strongly q this and at last things are changing.

I had no intention r staying s at university after I had finished my first degree. I finally succumbed t parental pressure, but only u protest, and carried out research v the life of Baudelaire. 2 Put the correct preposition into each gap if necessary. 1 Are you coming to classes Monday 2 Can t you hurry up The train leaves 9 o clock. 3 There weren t many people the party.

4 David has been a teacher 10 years. 5 They got married some time . 6 Do you know the names of the letter English 7 I don t live far my office. In fact, it s quite . 8 What time do you usually come home 9 He lives the country. 10 I think she s gone holiday the South. 11 I m going to stay my parents July. 12 It s so difficult to wake him up the morning.

13 The girls are the bus stop. 14 They are going school. 15 The children are playing the garden. 16 Did you see the film television yesterday 17 I try to go bed before midnight. 18 Young people are fond sports. 19 Charles is very good languages. 20 It might be John but I thought he was work. 21 - How do you get work -

I go there bus. 22 Look that picture. 23 Why don t you take your coat. It s warm today. 24 She s French, she comes the South of France. Unit 3 Review of tenses activepassive voice Practice 1 Matching verb forms Match a sentence from A with a sentence from B, according to the tense used.

Say which tense it is. Some sentences are in the negative or question form. Example He works in a bank. She doesn t smoke. They are both Present Simple active. A 1 I don t believe you. 2 Have you been waiting long 3 He hasn t arrived yet. 4 It wasn t mended properly. 5 How are you feeling today 6 My office is being decorated at the moment.

7 We got lost. 8 What were you doing last night 9 This book has been translated into several languages. 10 The post is delivered twice a day. B a. It s raining. b. Did you have a good time c. How are these machines made d. They were working for something. e. He was killed in a car crash. f.

What is being done about inflation g. I ve been thinking about moving house. h. Have you seen Henry i. A cure for cancer hasn t been found yet. j. Where do you work 2 Active or passive Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense, and decided if it is active or passive. Ex. My car was stolen steal last night. Joseph Ford, the politician who a kidnap last week as he was driving to his office, b release unharmed.

He c examine by a doctor last night, and d say to be in good health. Mr Ford e find walking along a small country lane early yesterday evening. A farmer f see him, recognised who it was, and g contact the police. When his wife h tell the news, she said, I am delighted and relieved that my husband i find. Acting on information received, the police made several arrests, and a man j question in connection

with the kidnapping. 3 Passive construction Put the following sentences into the passive, using a personal pronoun as the subject. Ex. Someone told her the news. She was told the news. a. Someone will give you your tickets at the airport. b. People asked me a lot of questions about my background. c. Someone usually shows airline passengers how to use a life jacket at the beginning of the flight. d.

If somebody offers you a cheap camera, don t buy it. It s probably stolen. e. Doctors have given him six months to live. f. Someone will tell you what you have to do when you arrive. g. My parents advised me to spend some time abroad before looking for work. h. Pleased to meet you. People have told me a lot about you. i.

At interviews, people ask you quite searching questions. j. In a few years time, my company will send me to our New York office. 4 Tense review 1 Put the verb in brackets in an appropriate tense. When there is no verb , insert an auxiliary verb. I. My wife and I a live in our present house in the country for five years.

We b move here after our second child c be born. We d live in town for ten years , and e decide that as soon as we f can afford it, we g move away from the smoke and the noise of the city centre, which we finally h in 1985. We i never regret it. We j be reminded of the wisdom of our decision every morning when we k draw the curtains to see the open fields stretching before us. When the children l have breakfast, they m rush outside to play, which they n whatever the weather.

Whilst they o play outside, we somehow manage to start the day. II. Actually, we a think of moving. My wife b accept a new job, which she c start next month. As soon as she d , she e have a journey of fifty miles there and back, and I f not think that she g realise just how tiring this h be. I i go away on business for a few days next week, and while

I j be away, my sister k come to stay, which she l quite often. Once I m be back, I n decide that I o get in touch with some estate agents. I p not feel happy until we q find a house closer to my wife s job. I wonder what the children r say when they s hear that we t move. This is the first time they u live in the country, and they v hate to move back to town.

5 Tense review 2 Put the verb in brackets in an appropriate tense. Junk story that beat the experts The strangest story I a ever report began one Spring morning in Hong Kong. I was born and brought up in Hong Kong and I b just start working as a radio reporter there. In March 1981, ninety-five fishing junks c spot sailing over the horizon.

Immediately they d surround by police launches who thought they were trying e sneak into Hong Kong against the law. One of Hong Kong s greatest problems is trying to keep out thousands of people who think life there f be better than in China, and try to smuggle themselves in. Hong Kong is already the most crowded place in the world, and there s no room for more people. But when the police asked the junk people why they g come they h get a shock.

They said they i stay for a few days j escape the terrible calamity that was about k strike their villages in China. They said there was complete panic at home because everyone l believe an earthquake m come. Throughout its history China n suffer terrible earthquakes, cities o destroy and thousands killed. Nowadays, all over the country there are seismographic centres where earthquakes can easy p predict. The Hong Kong authorities phoned one of these centres in

China to find out whether they q warn about a forthcoming earthquake, but the answer was no. Experts in Hong Kong agreed that there was no reason for the junk people s fears. Consequently the junk people r send home. On their way back an earthquake did indeed s strike their village. No-one was hurt but the mystery t remain. How did the junk people know, when the scientists and experts with all their sophisticated machines

didn t Unit 4 Modal verbs Introduction to modals can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, would Main points Modals are always the first word in a verb group. All modals except for ought are followed by the base form of a verb. Ought is followed by a to -infinitive. Modals have only one form. 1 Modals are always the first word in a verb group.

All modals except foroughtare followed by the base form of a verb. I must leave fairly soon. I think it will look rather nice. Things might have been so different. People may be watching. 2 Ought is always followed by a to -infinitive. She ought to go straight back to England. Sam ought to have realised how dangerous it was.

You ought to be doing this. 3 Modals have only one form, There is no -s form for the third person singular of the present tense, and there are no -ing or -ed forms. There s nothing I can do about it. I m sure he can do it. 4 Modals do not normally indicate the time when something happens. There are, however, a few exceptions. Shall and will often indicate a future event or situation.

I shall do what you suggested. He will not return for many hours. Could is used as the past form of can to express ability. Would is used as the past form of will to express the future. When I was young, I could run for miles. He remembered that he would see his mother the next day. 5 In spoken English and informal written English, shall and will are shortened to - ll and would to

- d , and added to a pronoun. I ll see you tomorrow. I hope you ll agree. Posy said she d love to stay. Shall , will , and would are never shortened if they come at the end of a sentence. Paul said he would come, and I hope he will. In spoken English, you can also add - ll and - d to nouns. My car ll be outside.

The headmaster d be furious. Warning Remember that -d is also the short form of the auxiliary had . I d heard it many times. Practice 1 Your have to complete a sentence with could, was were able to or couldn t. Example My grandfather was very clever. He could or was able to speak five languages. 1 He had hurt his leg, so he walk very well. 2 She wasn t at home when I phone but I contact her at her office. 3 I look very carefully and

I see a figure in the distance. 4 They didn t have any tomatoes in the first shop I went to, but I get some in the next shop. 5 My grandmother loved music. She play the piano very well. 6 The boy fell into the river but fortunately we rescue him. 2 In this exercise you have to write sentences with could or could have. Example She doesn t want to stay with Linda. But she could stay with

Linda. 1 He didn t want to help us. But he 2 He doesn t want to help us. But 3 They don t want to lend us any money. But 4 She didn t want to have anything to eat. 3 You have read a situation and write a sentence with must have or can t have. Use the words in brackets. Example The phone rang but I didn t hear it. I must be asleep

I must have been asleep. 1 That dress you bought is very good quality. It must be very expensive 2 I haven t seen Jim for ages. He must go away 3 I wonder where my umbrella is. You must leave it on the train 4 Don passed the examination. He didn t study very much for it. The exam can t be very difficult 5 She knew everything about our plans.

She must listen to our conversation 6 Denis did the opposite of what I asked him to do. He can t understand what I said 7 When I woke up this morning, the light was on. I must forget to turn it off 8 I don t understand how the accident happened. The driver can t see the red light 4 Rewrite these sentences using the modals given. Example

Perhaps he fell. may have might have He may have fallen. He could have fallen. 1 Perhaps they saw us. could have might have 2 Perhaps he said that. I don t remember. might have could have 3 We re lost. I think we ve taken the wrong road. must have 4 I wish you had seen it. It was wonderful. should have 5

I ought to have known that would happen. should have 6 Perhaps when I am fifty I won t remember it. will have forgotten 7 It was possible for me to prevent that, but I didn t. could have 8 You should have listened to her the first time. ought to have 5 Make suitable sentences from the table below using can.

Learning English Watching television Visiting relatives Winter sports Going to the dentist Meeting new people TravellingcanSometimes Often Occasionallybeexciting. boring. interesting. painful. hard work. dangerous. good fun.Example Travelling can often be boring. 6 Complete these sentences using can, can t, could or couldn t.

Example There was a woman with a big hat right in front of me. I couldn t see a thing. 1 I m sorry, you re in my light. I see what I m doing. 2 It was a huge hall and we were at the back, so we hear very well. 3 When she screams, you hear her all over the house. 4 She was phoning all the way from Singapore, but

I hear her very clearly. 5 you hear me at the back 6 Put your hands up if you hear me. 7 Rewrite these suggestions starting with the words given. Example Let s go to the theatre. How about going to the theatre 1 We should get started as soon as possible. It might be a good idea 2 You could write and ask her yourself. You might like to 3

Why don t we take a winter holiday for a change What about 4 Couldn t you just play at the end of the month You could 5 We could take a week off in July. Let s 6 You could ask Bill to help. What 7 Why don t you ring and tell them you re coming You 8 We could borrow the equipment from Peter. Couldn t 9

Why don t we keep quiet about that It might 8 Add comments to these sentences using I wish. Example I m afraid your father can t come. I wish he could. They always come late. I wish they wouldn t. 1 He always complains about everything. 2 He never invites us round. 3 We can t go on holiday this year. 4 She won t listen to anything you say.

5 They can t help out I m afraid. 6 She never comes home at weekends. 9 Fill each gap with a correct modal verb. 1 I really think you see a doctor. 2 Oh, look Mr. Thomson be here there s his car. 3 Why did you carry that heavy box You hurt yourself 4 - Where are my keys 5 I suppose I them in the car. 6

She had to wait 5 minutes for traffic to stop, but in the end to cross the road. 7 I took my umbrella, but it didn t rain, so I taken it. 8 Everyone understood. The teacher to explain it again. 9 He had an accident in his car. He where he was going. 10 - Did she do the exercise 11 No, she said she understand it.

12 He is very rich. He work for a living. 13 - Did you go to the concert 14 No. We have gone but decided not to. 15 - Did they find your house 16 Yes, it took them a long time but they to find it. 17 - Do you want me to wait for you 18 No, it s okay. You wait. 19 His test is the best in class. He study last night.

Unit 5 Gerunds and infinitives The gerund The gerund is used a. after prepositions. After leaving school, I went to university. The firemen rescued the lady by breaking down the door. Is anyone here good at sewing She was accused of killing her husband. Examples of prepositions frequently followed by the gerund are before after without by about at to of b. after certain verbs. I enjoy staying in hotels.

I avoid working at the weekend. Some of the most common verbs which are followed by the gerund are admit avoid deny enjoy finish c. as the subject or object of a sentence. Swimming is my favourite sport. Smoking is bad for your health. I find working in the garden very relaxing. d. after certain idiomatic expressions. Its no use talking to him. He doesnt know anything.

This is an excellent book. Its worth buying. Other idiomatic expressions are Theres no point in waiting all day. Its no good pretending that you understand. e. after certain verbs which are followed by the preposition to. Im looking forward to visiting you in July. The infinitive The infinitive is used a. after certain verbs. I cant afford to pay all my bills. I hope to see you again soon.

Some of the most common verbs that are followed by the infinitive are agree appear attempt choose dare decide expect help learn manage need offer promise refuse seem You should consult a good dictionary, for example the Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, to see which structures are possible after a particular verb. b. after certain verbs followed by an object.

He advised me to listen carefully. They invited her to have lunch with them. Some of the most common verbs that are normally used with an object and an infinitive are allow encourage force order persuade remind teach tell warn c. after certain verbs which sometimes take an object and sometimes don t. I want to find out the answer, no object I find out. I want you to find out the answer, you as object

You find out. Id like to help you. Id like you to give her a message. NEVER I want that you Id like that you Other common verbs are ask expect d. after certain adjectives. Its difficult to explain how to get there. Its possible to walk there. e. after make and let. She made me do the exercise again, active without to I was made to do the exercise again, passive with to

He let me borrow the car. active - without to I was allowed to borrow the car. Let , in the sense of allow , is not possible in the passive. f. to express purpose. I came here to team English. I need more money to buy the things I want. g. after certain verbs followed by question words, e.g. what, where, who. I didnt know what to do. Can you tell me how to get there

Show me where to put it. Do you know where to buy it After these verbs and others with similar meanings, it is possible to use how, what, where, when, whether etc. ask consider explain wonder find out understand Forms of the infinitive 1 The continuous infinitive The continuous infinitive is formed with to be present participle.

It expresses activities in progress. Id like to be lying in the sun right now. He seemed to be having financial difficulties. 2 The perfect infinitive The perfect infinitive is formed with to have past participle. Id like to have seen his face when you told him. He seems to have forgotten about the appointment. 3 The passive infinitive The passive infinitive is formed with to be past participle.

Id like to be promoted to sales manager. I asked to be informed as soon as there was any news. Notes The continuous, perfect, and passive infinitives can also be used with modal auxiliary verbs, but with these verbs to is omitted. You should be working, not watching television. She must have gone home already. This report must be finished tonight. The gerund or the infinitive after verbs 1 Continue, start, begin

Either the gerund or the infinitive can be used. It started to snow snowing. The infinitive is more common. 2 Love, like, prefer, hate The meaning changes slightly, depending on whether the gerund or the infinitive is used. Followed by the gerund, the statement is general. I like swimming. I love going to parties. I hate driving in the dark.

Followed by the infinitive, the statement is more specific. I like to read a book before going to sleep at night. I hate to tell you, but Ive lost your coat. 3 Remember, forget, stop, try The meaning changes greatly depending on whether the gerund or the infinitive is used. I remember being very unhappy as a teenager. I know that

I was very unhappy as a teenager. Ill never forget meeting you. The day I met you is very clear in my memory. The gerund refers to actions and states in the past, i.e. before the remembering, forgetting, etc. take place. Remember to put some petrol in the car There isn t much petrol in the car and it is important that you buy some. Dont forget to post the letter The letter is important, so you must remind yourself to

post it. The infinitive refers to actions that must still be done, i.e. that happen after the remembering, forgetting, etc. I stopped smoking years ago. previous activity I stopped to pick up a hitchhiker. This tells us why I stopped. We tried to put out the fire, but it was impossible. I tried pouring on water, my husband tried covering it with a blanket and my son tried using the fire

extinguisher, but in the end we had to call the fire brigade. Try infinitive is your goal it is what you want to do. Try gerund is the method you use to achieve that goal. Practice 1 Open the brackets using a gerund. 1 The windows are very dirty they need clean. 2 Its very hot, so you dont need bring a coat. 3 The house is old, and it badly wants paint.

4 The famous man didnt need introduce himself. 5 The floor is covered with dust it needs sweep. 6 The grass in the garden is very dry it wants water badly. 7 The planners didnt realise they would need build so many houses. 8 This shirt is quite clean it doesnt want wash yet. 9 Her shoes have a hole in them they want mend. 10

The room was in a terrible mess it needed tidy up. 11 The babys crying I think he needs feed. 12 I know my hair wants cut but I never have time to go to the hairdressers. 13 John needed cheer up when he heard that hed failed his exams. 14 You should tidy the garden Yes, it needs tidy. The roses want water, the peaches want pick, the grass wants cut.

2 Open the brackets using a suitable gerund 1 Alter the accident, the injured man recovered consciousness in hospital. He remembered cross the road, but he didnt remember knock down. 2 I am still thirsty in spite of drink four cups of tea. 3 This carpet always looks dirty, in spite of sweep every day. 4 He didnt return the book he had borrowed after promise to do so.

5 He got into the house by climb through a window, without see by anyone. 6 I think he was foolish to buy a car before learn how to drive it. 7 Peter is a much better chess-player than I am, and he was very surprised when I beat him yesterday for the first time. He isnt used to beat. 8 He went to bed at 9 p.m. in spite of sleep all the afternoon.

9 He complained of give a very small room at the back of the hotel. 10 The little girl isnt afraid of dogs in spite of bite twice. 11 The little girl didnt go near the dog she was afraid of bite. 12 The baby went to sleep a few minutes after feed. 13 The little girl never gets tired of ask her mother questions, but her mother often gets tired of

ask so many questions. 14 They lived in a small town for ten years and then moved without make friends with any of their neighbours. 15 The little boy was punished for tell a lie by send to bed without his supper. 16 Mary was chosen a year ago to act in the school play. She was very pleased at choose. 17 Jack doesnt like boxing. I dont know if he is afraid of hurt his opponent or of hurt himself.

18 He was taken to hospital unconscious after the accident. He died in hospital without recover consciousness. 19 I always treat people politely and I insist on treat politely. 20 The boy was very hungry at eleven oclock in spite of eat a big breakfast two hours earlier. 21 She didnt get out of bed until ten oclock in spite of wake up at seven.

3 Complete the following sentences using a gerund. Example Im good at mending things. a. I have difficulty in b. I m very interested in c. I m thinking of d. He saved up 1000 for a holiday by e. I sometimes worry about not f. Thank you for g. I m looking forward to h. She left the room without i. I stayed in bed all day instead of 4

Use your imagination to complete the following sentences. Example Working in a coal mine is dangerous, but well-paid. a. Finding a good job these days b. Living in a big city c. Taking regular exercise d. Travelling by air e. Being self-employed f. Learning a foreign language 5 Complete the following sentences using infinitives.

Example It is easy to find cheap places to eat. a. How do you do. Pleased to b. When you re old, it can be difficult to c. I was surprised to d. If you haven t got much money, it s impossible to e. It can be expensive to f. When you travel abroad, it s important to 6 There are many expressions with go gerund which are concerned with activities, sports, and physical

recreation. go dancing go skiing go running Complete these sentences with go a suitable gerund. a. I yesterday, but I didn t buy anything. b. I by the river tomorrow, but I m sure I won t catch anything. c. Whenever there s enough snow, we every weekend. d. If I had enough money, I d buy a yacht and in the Mediterranean. e. We had a lovely holiday. We every day.

The water was lovely. 7 Fill the gaps with one of the verbs which follow the passage, in either the gerund or infinitive form. Jane s a nurse, but she s trying 1 a new job. Although she enjoys 2 people, nursing is not very well paid, and she cannot afford 3 all her bills. She finds it impossible to live on such a low salary without 4 her account at the bank. Her flat needs 5 , and she would like 6 a car. She managed 7 enough last year for a short holiday by 8

some extra money in her spare time, and this year, she s hoping 9 some friends in France. She has stopped 10 to the theatre, which used to be one of her greatest pleasures. She s thinking of 11 in America, where she could earn a higher salary in a private hospital, but would prefer 12 in this country if possible. She likes 13 to see her parents whenever she wants to. A friend of hers went to America after 14 university, but began 15 her friends so badly that she had

to come back. earn look after miss leave pay work visit save buy stay find redecorate be able to overdraw go 1 8 Gap filling Complete the following story. The lines show the number of words missing. The words are not always gerunds or infinitives. Example He tried to find a job. I d like you to help me. John Bradley was surprised a a letter waiting for him on his desk when he arrived at work.

Before b it, he hung up his coat and took out his glasses. Dear Mr Bradley, he read, We are sorry c you that your services are no longer required He couldn t believe it. After d for the company for thirty years, he had been made redundant, one Monday morning, without e warned in any way at all. There was no point f the letter. The ending was obvious.

Thank you for your loyalty and dedication over the years, and we hope you will enjoy g more time to spend The company wanted h to go away quietly and enjoy his premature retirement. He was fifty-two. How could he i find another job at this age He knew that firms were not interested j people over forty-five, let alone over fifty. Could he still afford k his daughters to their expensive school

He sat back in his chair and looked out of the window, wondering l next. He decided m the office as soon as possible. He did not want n to see him while he left so depressed. So he put on his coat and for the last time closed the office door behind him. He stopped o goodbye to the telephonist, whom he had known for years, and left the building. Out in the street, it had begun p . He had forgotten q his umbrella that morning, so he turned up his

overcoat collar and walked towards the station r his train home. He didn t know what s to his wife. The thought of breaking the news to her t feel sick. 9 Adjective infinitive Rewrite the sentences, using the adjectives in brackets. Example I heard you passed your driving test. delighted I was delighted to hear that you passed your driving test. a.

I learned that your aunt died. sorry b. He wanted to know where we had been. anxious c. She found that her husband was still alive. amazed d. I see you re still smoking. disappointed e. He learned that he had nearly died. shocked 10 Verbs gerund or infinitive Rewrite the sentences, using the verbs in brackets. Example Come to the party. You ll really enjoy it, he said to her. persuade

He persuaded her to go to the party. a. Yes, I did drive too fast through the town, she said. admit b. I ll lend you some money, if you like, he said to me. offer c. If I were you, I d accept the job, he said to his daughter. advise d. Why don t you have a holiday in my country cottage he said to us. invite e. You must pay for the damage you ve done, she said.

So I paid. make f. I haven t smoked for three years, she said. stop g. We needed petrol, so we went to a service station. stop h. I didn t buy food for dinner so we had to go out. forget i. But I fed the cat. remember j. I had piano lessons for years, but I was never very good. try 11 To used instead of whole infinitive

Notice that the whole infinitive need not be repeated if it is understood. Example A You look terrible. You should have a holiday. B I m going to. I m going to have a holiday a. A Why aren t you going to work B not want b. A Can you come round for a meal tonight B love , but c. A I m afraid I can t take you to the airport after all.

Sorry. B promise But d. A Why can t I take this book from the library B not allow e. A Why have you painted the wall black B tell A No, I didn t. I told you to paint it pale yellow. f. A Did you go out for a meal with him B not ask 12 Talking versus a talk Compare the following sentences.

Talking to someone about a problem usually helps to solve it. I had a talk with Susan last night. The gerund is used when we speak in general. To speak about one specific occasion, we can use some verbs as nouns in the structure have a noun. Write two sentences for each of the following words, one with a gerund and one with have a noun. Ride drink look wash quarrel walk 13 Noun preposition

Many nouns are followed by prepositions. Put the correct preposition into each gap. a. I got a cheque five hundred pounds in the post today. b. There has been a rise the number of violent crimes. c. Have you seen this photo my daughter Isn t she beautiful d. The difference you and me is that I don t mind hard work. e.

I can think of no reason such strange behaviour. f. It took a long time to find a solution the problem. g. Could you give me some information train times h. I m having trouble my car. It won t start. i. She s doing research the causes of tooth decay. j. This is a machine grinding coffee. Unit 6 Reported speech

Report structures that -clauses Main points You usually use your own words to report what someone said, rather than repeating their exact words. Report structures contain a reporting clause first, then a reported clause. When you are reporting a statement, the reported clause is a that -clause. You must mention the hearer with tell . You need not mention the hearer with say . 1 When you are reporting what someone said, you do not usually repeat their exact words, you use your

own words in a report structure. Jim said he wanted to go home. Jim s actual words might have been It s time I went or I must go . Report structures contain two clauses. The first clause is the reporting clause, which contains a reporting verb such as say , tell , or ask . She said that shed been to Belgium. The man in the shop told me how much it would cost.

You often use verbs that refer to people s thoughts and feelings to report what people say. If someone says I am wrong , you might report this as He felt that he was wrong . 2 The second clause in a report structure is the reported clause, which contains the information that you are reporting. The reported clause can be a that -clause, a to -infinitive clause, an if -clause, or a wh -word clause. She said that she didnt know.

He told me to do it. Mary asked if she could stay with us. She asked where hed gone. 3 If you want to report a statement, you use a that -clause after a verb such as say . admitarguedecideinsistreplyagreeclaimden ymentionsayanswercomplainexplainpromisew arnHe said that he would go. I replied that I had not read it yet. You often omit that from the that -clause, but not after answer , argue , explain , or reply .

They said I had to see a doctor first. He answered that the price would be three pounds. You often mention the hearer after the preposition to with the following verbs. admitcomplainmentionsuggestannounceexpla insayHe complained to me that you were rude. 4 Tell and some other reporting verbs are also used with a that-clause, but with these verbs you have to mention the hearer as the object of the verb. convincenotifyreassuretellinformpersuade remindHe told me that he was a farmer. I informed her that

I could not come. The word that is often omitted after tell . I told them you were at the dentist. You can also mention the hearer as the object of the verb with promise and warn . I promised her that I wouldnt be late. 5 Note the differences between say and tell . You cannot use say with the hearer as the object of the verb. You cannot say I said them you had gone . You cannot use tell without the hearer as the object

of the verb. You cannot say I told that you had gone . You cannot use tell with to and the hearer. You cannot say I told to them you had gone . 6 The reporting verbs that have the hearer as object, such as tell , can be used in the passive. She was told that there were no tickets left. Most reporting verbs that do not need the hearer as object, such as say , can be used in the passive

with impersonal it as subject, but not answer , complain , insist , promise , reply , or warn . It was said that the money had been stolen. Other report structures Main points When reporting an order, a request, or a piece of advice, the reported clause is a to-infinitive clause, used after an object When reporting a question, the reported clause is an if-clause or a wh-word clause Many reporting verbs refer to peoples thoughts and feelings 1

If you want to report an order a request or a piece of advice you use a to -infinitive clause after a reporting verb such as tell ask or advise . You mention the hearer as the object of the verb before the to -infinitive clause. advisecommandinviteremindaskforbidordert ellbeginstructpersuadewarnJohnson told her to wake him up. He ordered me to fetch the books. He asked her to marry him. He advised me to buy it.

If the order request or advice is negative you put not before the to -infinitive. He had ordered his officers not to use weapons. She asked her staff not to discuss it publicly. Doctors advised him not to play for three weeks. If the subject of the to -infinitive clause is the same as the subject of the main verb you can use ask or beg to report a request without mentioning the hearer. I asked to see the manager. Both men begged not to be named.

2 If you want to report a question you use a verb such as ask followed by an if -clause or a wh -word clause. I asked if I could stay with them. They wondered whether the time was right. He asked me where I was going. She inquired how Abraham was getting on. Note that in reported questions the subject of the question comes before the verb just as it does in affirmative sentences. 3 Many reporting verbs refer to people s thoughts and feelings but are often

used to report what people say. For example if someone says I must go you might report this as She wanted to go or She thought she should go . Some of these verbs are followed by a that -clause acceptfearimaginethinkbelievefeelknowund erstandconsiderguesssupposeworryWe both knew that the town was cut off. I had always believed that I would see him again. a to infinitive clause intendplanwantHe doesn t want

to get up. a that -clause or a to -infinitive clause agreeexpecthoperegretwishdecideforgetpre ferrememberShe hoped she wasn t going to cry. They are in love and wish to marry. Expect and prefer can also be followed by an object and a to -infinitive. I m sure she doesn t expect you to take the plane. The headmaster prefers them to act plays they have written themselves.

4 A speakers exact words are more often used in stories than in ordinary conversation I knew I d seen you, I said. Only one replied, the Englishman. Let s go and have a look at the swimming pool, she suggested. In ordinary conversation it is normal to use a report structure rather than to repeat someones exact words. Practice 1 Match the reports with the actual words used.

Example 1 h 1 They said they had to go. 2 He said he would help if he could. 3 She promised she would visit us. 4 He suggested that we should write to the boss. 5 They insisted we should stay a bit longer. 6 They complained that they were too busy. 7 She mentioned that she had met you. 8 I explained that they should send a letter. a. You can t leave yet. It s only eleven o clock. b.

Well, I ll do whatever I can for you. c. If I were you I would get in touch with the manager. d. I bumped into your brother in London yesterday. e. It s no good just telephoning. Put something in writing. f. I ll certainly come and see you some time. g. We have far too much work at the moment. h. I m afraid it s time for us to leave.

2 Use the appropriate form of these verbs to complete the definitions and examples. admit announce argue complain deny mention explain inform 1 If you inform someone that something is the case, you tell them about it. EG I informed her that I was unwell and could not come to her party. 2 If you something, you agree, often reluctantly, that it is true. EG I must that I had my doubts. 3 When you something, you say that it not true.

EG Green that he had done anything illegal. 4 If you something, you tell people about it publicly or officially. EG It was that the Prime Minister would speak on television that evening. 5 If you , you tell someone about a situation affecting you that is wrong or unsatisfactory. EG He that the office was not businesslike . 6 If you something, you say it, but do not spend long talking about it. EG I to Tom that I was thinking of going back to work.

7 If you something, you describe it so that it can be understood. EG He that they had to buy a return ticket. 8 If you that something is the case, you state your opinion about it and give reasons why you think it is true. EG Some people that nuclear weapons have helped to keep the peace. 3 Use one of the words given in brackets to complete each of the sentences below.

1 I explained to him that he would have to wait. explained told 2 He me that it was time to go. mentioned informed 3 She to them that they should reconsider their decision. suggested persuaded 4 We were that you would pay the bill. told said 5 It was that there would be another meeting the following week. informed announced 6 George to me that he might look in to see me. promised mentioned 4

Rewrite the sentences below as orders or requests with a to -infinitive clause, and the words in brackets. Example Do you think you could look after the children David ask Mary David asked Mary to look after the children. 1 I think you should try to get more sleep. John s doctor advise him 2 You can come round and see us any time. We invite our friends 3

Will you take the money to the bank, please Jack tell me 4 Don t forget to come half an hour early on Tuesday. Mr Brown remind the students 5 Please write to me every day. Bill beg Maria Now do these with not and to -infinitive clause. 6 You shouldn t play with fire. I warn the children 7

I don t think you should go to England in the winter. My grandfather advise me 8 You really ought not to go out alone after dark. They tell the visitors 9 Please don t make an official complaint. The manger persuade her 5 Now do these sentences with ask and a wh-word clause. Example What time does the match start please I a policeman

I asked a policeman what time the match started. 1 Where are you going to spend the holiday Joe Mary 2 Why are the tickets so expensive Everybody us 3 How old are Mary s children Frank his wife 4 Who s going to buy your house Mrs Jones her neighbour 5 When are you planning to come to

Darlington Bill his friend 6 What are you going to do next I Maria 7 Were can I get the bus to Liverpool Peter a policeman 6 In this exercise you have to write what you would say in these situations. Example Ann says I m tired . Five minutes later she says Let s play tennis . What do you say You said you were tired.

1 Your friend says I m hungry so you go to a restaurant. When you get there he says I don t want to eat . What do you say You said 2 Tom tells you Ann has gone away . Later that day you meet her. What do you say Tom told 3 George said I don t smoke . A few days later you see him smoking a cigarette.

What do you say to him You said 4 You arranged to meet Jack. He said I won t be late . At last he arrives 20 minutes late. What do you say You 5 Sue said I can t come to the party tonight . That night you see her at the party. What do you say to her 6 Ann says I m working tomorrow evening . Later that day she says

Let s go out tomorrow evening . What do you say 7 Now you have to read a sentence and write a new sentence with the same meaning. Example Listen carefully , he said to us. He told us to listen carefully. 1 Eat more fruit and vegetables , the doctor said. 2 Read the instructions before you switch on the machine , he said to me. 3 Shut the door but don t lock it , she said to us.

4 Can you speak more slowly I can t understand , he said to me. 5 Don t come before 6 o clock , I said to him. Unit 7 Conditionals Conditional clauses using if Main points You use conditional clauses to talk about a possible situation and its results. Conditional clauses can begin with if . A conditional clause needs a main clause to make a complete

sentence. The conditional clause can come before or after the main clause. 1 You use conditional clauses to talk about a situation that might possibly happen and to say what its results might be. You use if to mention events and situations that happen often, that may happen in the future, that could have happened in the past but did not happen, or that are unlikely to happen at all. If the light comes on, the battery is OK. Ill call you if

I need you. If I had known. Id have told you. If she asked me, Id help her. 2 When you are talking about something that is generally true or happens often, you use a present or present perfect tense in the main clause and the conditional clause. If they lose weight during an illness, they soon regain it afterwards. If an advertisement does not tell the truth, the advertiser is committing an offence.

If the baby is crying, it is probably hungry. If they have lost any money, they report it to me. Warning You do not use the present continuous in both clauses. You do not say If they are losing money, they are getting angry. 3 When you use a conditional clause with a present or present perfect tense, you often use an imperative in the main clause. Wake me up if you re worried. If he has finished, ask him to leave quietly.

If you are very early, don t expect them to be ready. 4 When you are talking about something which may possibly happen in the future, you use a present or present perfect tense in the conditional clause, and the simple future in the main clause If I marry Celia, we will need the money. If you are going to America, you will need a visa. If he has done the windows, he will want his money.

Warning You do not normally use will in conditional clauses. You do not say If I will see you tomorrow, I will give you the book. 5 When you are talking about something that you think is unlikely to happen, you use the past simple or past continuous in the conditional clause and would in the main clause. If I had enough money, I would buy the car. If he was coming, he would ring.

Warning You do not normally use would in conditional clauses. You do not say If I would do it, I would do it like this. 6 Were is sometimes used instead of was in the conditional clause, especially after I . If I were as big as you, I would kill you. If I weren t so busy, I would do it for you. You often say If I were you when you are giving someone advice.

If I were you, I would take the money. I should keep out of Brendans way if I were you. 7 When you are talking about something which could have happened in the past but which did not actually happen, you use the past perfect in the conditional clause. In the main clause, you use would have and a past participle. If he had realised that, he would have run away. I wouldn t have been so depressed if

I had known how common this feeling is. Warning You do not use would have in the conditional clause. You do not say If I would have seen him, I would have told him. Practice 1 Put the verb into the correct form I 1 You to speak better if you to be more attentive. 2 If he to understand the situation, he to act differently.

3 He to catch the train if he to make haste. 4 If I to be you, I to consider the matter settled. 5 If only he to be here, he can tell you. 6 If I to be in your place, I to think as you do. 7 He not to do it if you not to help him. 8 If he to be present, he may object. 9 She to come to see you if she not to be tired. 10

If I to get the tickets before twelve oclock, I to come straight home. II 1 I think that if we to take shelter under these trees, we not to get wet. 2 If I to hesitate much longer before getting into the water, he not to let me swim at all today. 3 If she to come earlier, she to have been able to see him before he went out. 4 He to go for a ride with you, if he to repair his bicycle.

5 If a year ago the sailors to be told they were to undertake a trip of this sort, they to be surprised. 6 If he to be present, this not to occur. 7 If the storm not to rage, the ship to leave the harbour last night. 8 If our telephone not to be out of order, I to ring you up this morning. 9 If you to come between two and three yesterday, you to find me at home. 10 If I to have to carry that heavy box, I to be obliged to drop it after five minutes.

11 I not to go to sleep over that book if it not to be so dull. 12 If I to know you to come, I of course to stay at home. 13 If anyone to say such a thing to me, I to feel hurt. 14 We never to solve the riddle, if you not to put us on the track. 2 Open the brackets I 1 If I had known that you were in hospital

I visit you. 2 If I know that you were coming Id have baked a cake. 3 If you arrive ten minutes earlier you would have got a seat. 4 You would have seen my garden at its best if you be here last week. 5 I wouldnt have believed it if I not see it with my own eyes. 6 I offer to help him if I had realised that he was ill.

7 If I realise what a bad driver you were I wouldnt have come with you. 8 If I had realised that the traffic lights were red I stop. 9 The hens not get into the house if you had shut the door. 10 If he had known that the river was dangerous lie not try to swim across it. 11 If you speak more slowly he might have understood you.

12 If lie had known the whole story he not be so angry. 13 If I try again I think that I would have succeeded. 14 You not get into trouble if you had obeyed my instructions. 15 If I be ready when he called he would have taken me with him. 16 If she had listened to my directions she not turn down the wrong street.

17 If you look at the engine for a moment you would have seen what was missing. 18 I take a taxi if I had realised that it was such a long way. 19 You save me a lot of trouble if you had told me where you were going. 20 If you not sneeze he wouldnt have known that we were there. II 1 If I see you in the street yesterday, of course

I say Good morning. 2 Im sorry I threw the newspaper away. I not throw it away if I know you had wanted it. 3 Why didnt you ask me to help you -Of course I help you if you ask me to. 4 Im sorry I couldnt come to the cinema with you last Friday I come if I not be so busy. 5 I not cleave the office early yesterday if

I not finish my work. 3 Match these parts to make conditional sentences. Example 1 j 1 Dan might help you a if they are enjoying themselves. 2 You are sure to be late b if I can remember her phone number. 3 Youll enjoy the Jacques Tatty film c if you miss the bus. 4 They always stay out late d if you dont want to.

5 Theyll understand it all right e if you phone while Im out. 6 Ill give her a call f if you explain it to them. 7 Bill will take a message g if I have the time. 8 Ill do the shopping h if you dont have a ticket. 9 You cant get in i if you can understand French. 10

You neednt come to the party j if you ask him. 4 Complete these sentences by putting the verb in brackets in the right tense. Example If you ask Liz, she will tell you what to do. ask 1 Hes going to visit some friends in Athens if he time. have 2 You shouldnt interrupt them if they work 3 Maria will get you some money if she to the bank. go 4 Ill have a word with Jack if he at home. be 5 Match these parts to make conditional sentences.

Example 1 i 1 If I had their address a it would cost over 650. 2 If you saw her now b you might earn a bit more money. 3 If I took more exercise c I could probably stay with Michael. 4 If you got a new job d she must have been out at work. 5 If you asked Heather e she would give you a certificate.

6 If I travelled first class f she would probably give you a lift. 7 If it was a little warmer g we could go for a swim. 8 If she didnt answer the phone h I might lose a bit of weight. 9 If you went to the doctor i I could write and ask them. 10 If I stopped off in Ankara j you would hardly recognise her.

Conditional clauses using modals and unless Main points You can use a modal in a conditional clause. You use unless to mention an exception to what you are saying. 1 You sometimes use modals in conditional clauses. In the main clause, you can still use a present tense for events that happen often, will for events that are quite likely in the future, would for an event that is unlikely to happen, and would have for

events that were possible but did not happen. If he can t come, he usually phones me. If they must have it today, they will have to come back at five o clock. If I could only find the time, I d do it gladly. If you could have seen him. you would have laughed too. Should is sometimes used in conditional clauses to express greater uncertainty. If any visitors should come, Ill say you arent here.

2 You can use other modals besides will , would and would have in the main clause with their usual meanings. She might phone me, if she has time. You could come. if you wanted to. If he sees you leaving, he may cry. Note that you can have modals in both clauses the main clause and the conditional clause. If he cant come, he will phone. 3 In formal English, if the first verb in a conditional clause is had , should , or were , you can

put the verb at the beginning of the clause and omit if. For example, instead of saying If he should come. I will tell him you are sick , it is possible to say Should he come, I will tell him you are sick . Should ministers decide to hold an inquiry, we would welcome it. Were it all true, it would still not excuse their actions.

Had I known. I would not have done it. 4 When you want to mention an exception to what you are saying, you use a conditional clause beginning with unless . You will fail your exams. You will fail your exams unless you work harder. Note that you can often use if not instead of unless . You will fail your exams if you do not work harder.

When you use unless , you use the same tenses that you use with if . She spends Sundays in the garden unless the weather is awful. We usually walk, unless were going shopping. He will not let you go unless he is forced to do so. You wouldnt believe it, unless you saw it. 5 If and unless are not the only ways of beginning conditional clauses. You can also use as long as , only if , provided , provided that , providing , providing that

, or so long as . These expressions are all used to indicate that one thing only happens or is true if another thing happens or is true. I will come only if nothing is said to the press. She was prepared to come, provided that she could bring her daughter. Providing they remained at a safe distance, we would be all right. Detergent cannot harm a fabric, so long as it has been properly dissolved.

We were all right as long as we kept our heads down. Practice 1 Rewrite these sentences as conditionals. Example I can t write to her because I don t have her address. I could write to her, if I had her address. 1 I d like to go abroad but I can t afford it. 2 I m not going to buy that car because its so expensive.

3 We can t go out because it s raining. 4 She won t come to the party because she s away on holiday. 5 The central heating isnt working so we can t turn it on. 2 Rewrite these sentences as conditionals. Example Unfortunately I didn t see him, so I couldn t give him your message. If I had seen him, I could have given him your message.

1 Unfortunately he didn t pass his exams or he might have gone to university. 2 He didn t realise what was happening or he would have run away. 3 Fortunately I didn t hear what she said or I would have been very angry. 4 They got in because you didn t lock the door properly. 5 It only happened because you didn t follow the instructions.

6 Luckily she didn t find out or she would have been furious. 7 Its lucky we booked a room or we would have had nowhere to stay. 8 It s a good job we weren t going any faster or someone could have been killed. 9 He was so tired that he went home at lunchtime. 3 Match the two parts of these conditional sentences.

Example 1 g 1 You can borrow the money 2 Hell probably get lost. 3 Had I known you were coming. 4 George says he will come, 5 You are not allowed to park in the school, 6 Should he telephone while Im out, 7 Henry Ford said you could have any colour you wanted, 8 Fred will be at school next week, a I would have invited you to lunch. b would you ask him to call

back later c provided he has recovered from his cold. d unless you are a member of staff. e as long as it was black. f provided he can stay overnight. g so long as you promise to pay it back. h unless someone shows him the way.