Henry VII and his six wives

Министерство общего и профессионального образования Российской Федерации Российский государственный профессионально-педагогический университет Институт лингвистики Кафедра германской филологии Генрих VIII и его шесть жен Выполнил студентка гр. ИА-203 Заитова Т. Ф. Проверил Пузырв В.В. Екатеринбург 2003

Contents Introduction.1. Henry VII.5-2. Catherine of Aragon Humble and Loyal8-3. Anne Boleyn The Most Happy10-4. Jane Seymour Bound to Obey and Serve14-5. Anne of Cleves God Send Me Well To Keep 18-6. Katherine Howard No Other Will Than His 19-7. Katherine Parr

To Be Useful in All That I Do.21 Conclusion22 Bibliographic list 23 Appendix Henry VIII has been a subject of interest and study for centuries. One of Britains most powerful rulers, he came to the throne at eighteen and left it at fifty-six. He married six times and left three children, only one of whom was considered his legitimate heir at the time of Henrys death. After the pervading gloom of

Henry Tudor s last years, Henry VIII came to the throne on the crest of a wave of popularity, for this handsome, beardless youth of seventeen embodied a new age and seemed the antithesis of his father. He was tall and well proportioned, had a fair complexion and auburn hair combed short and straight in the French fashion indeed he was altogether the handsomest potentate I have ever set eyes on , wrote an envoy not given to exaggeration.

He was athletic, riding well, accurate in his marksmanship and determined to shine in jousts. He had received an enviable general education, understanding Latin easily, speaking French fluently. The boy with profound interests in theological questions and in the problems of the scholarship which worried his friend Erasmus, and possessing a fair for music-making of all kinds.

He was a Renaissance prince to his fingertips, who was determined to make his court a centre for the arts and humane studies. He dressed superbly and by natural grace commanded the stage with an easy authority. There was no question that he was a strong personality who would leave an indelible mark on his country. For the future the whole worlds will talk of him , commented a Venetian in London. Machiavelli who never met him described

Henry by repute as rich, ferocious and greedy for glory . 5378 Henry VIII Henry VIII was born at Greenwich on 28 January 1491, the second son of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. He became heir to the throne on the death of his elder brother, Prince Arthur, in 1502 and succeeded in 1509. In his youth he was athletic and highly intelligent.

Henrys scholarly interests included writing both books and music, and he was a lavish patron of the arts. Greensleeves, the popular melody frequently attributed to him is, however, almost certainly not one of his compositions. As the author of a best-selling book it went through some 20 editions in England and Europe attacking Martin Luther and supporting the Roman Catholic Church, in 1521 Henry was given the title

Defender of the Faith by the Pope. From his father, Henry VIII inherited a stable realm with the monarchs finances in healthy surplus - on his accession, Parliament had not been summoned for supplies for five years. Henrys varied interests and lack of application to government business and administration increased the influence of Thomas Wolsey, an Ipswich butchers son, who became

Lord Chancellor in 1515. Hampton Court Palace - on a greater scale than anything the king possessed. Wolsey exercised his powers vigorously in his own court of Chancery and in the increased use of the Councils judicial authority in the court of the

Star Chamber. Wolsey was also appointed Cardinal in 1515 and given papal legate powers which enabled him to by-pass the Archbishop of Canterbury and govern the Church in England. Henrys interest in foreign policy was focused on Western Europe, which was a shifting pattern of alliances centred round the kings of Spain and France, and the Holy Roman Emperor. Henry was related by marriage to all three - his wife

Catherine was Ferdinand of Aragons daughter, his sister Mary married Louis XII of France in 1514, and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V was Catherines nephew. An example of these shifts was Henrys unsuccessful Anglo-Spanish campaigns against France, ending in peace with France in 1520, when he spent huge sums on displays and tournaments at

the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Henry also invested in the navy, and increased its size from 5 to 53 ships including the Mary Rose, the remains of which lie in the Portsmouth Naval Museum. The second half of Henrys reign was dominated by two issues very important for the later history of England and the monarchy the succession and the Protestant Reformation, which led to the formation of the

Church of England. Henry had married his brothers widow, Catherine of Aragon, in 1509. Catherine had produced only one surviving child - a girl, Princess Mary, born in 1516. By the end of the 1520s, Henrys wife was in her forties and he was desperate for a son. The Tudor dynasty had been established by conquest in 1485 and

Henry was only its second monarch. England had not so far had a ruling queen, and the dynasty was not secure enough to run the risk of handing the Crown on to a woman, risking disputed succession or domination of a foreign power through marriage. 1 Henry had anyway fallen in love with Anne Boleyn, the sister of one of his many mistresses, and tried to persuade the Pope to grant him an annulment of his marriage on the grounds that it had never been legal.

Royal divorces had happened before Louis XII had been granted a divorce in 1499, and in 1527 James IVs widow Margaret Henrys sister had also been granted one. However, a previous Pope had specifically granted Henry a licence to marry his brothers widow in 1509. In May 1529, Wolsey failed to gain the Popes agreement to resolve

Henrys case in England. All the efforts of Henry and his advisers came to nothing Wolsey was dismissed and arrested, but died before he could be brought to trial. Since the attempts to obtain the divorce through pressure on the papacy had failed, Wolseys eventual successor Thomas Cromwell Henrys chief adviser from 1532 onwards turned to Parliament, using its powers and anti-clerical attitude encouraged by

Wolseys excesses to decide the issue. The result was a series of Acts cutting back papal power and influence in England and bringing about the English Reformation. In 1532, an Act against Annates - although suspended during the kings pleasure - was a clear warning to the Pope that ecclesiastical revenues were under threat. In 1532, Cranmer was promoted to Archbishop of Canterbury and, following the

Popes confirmation of his appointment, in May 1533 Cranmer declared Henrys marriage invalid Anne Boleyn was crowned queen a week later. The Pope responded with excommunication, and Parliamentary legislation enacting Henrys decision to break with the Roman Catholic Church soon followed. An Act in restraint of appeals forbade appeals to

Rome, stating that England was an empire, governed by one supreme head and king who possessed whole and entire authority within the realm, and that no judgements or excommunications from Rome were valid. An Act of Submission of the Clergy and an Act of Succession followed, together with an Act of Supremacy 1534 which recognised that the king was the only supreme head of the

Church of England called Anglicana Ecclesia. The breach between the king and the Pope forced clergy, office-holders and others to choose their allegiance - the most famous being Sir Thomas More, who was executed for treason in 1535. The other effect of the English Protestant Reformation was the Dissolution of Monasteries, under which monastic lands and possessions were broken up and sold off.

In the 1520s, Wolsey had closed down some of the small monastic communities to pay for his new foundations he had colleges built at Oxford and Ipswich. In 1535-6, another 200 smaller monasteries were dissolved by statute, followed by the remaining greater houses in 1538-40 as a result, Crown revenues doubled for a few years. 4177-183 Henrys second marriage had raised hopes for a male heir. Anne Boleyn, however, produced another daughter,

Princess Elizabeth, and failed to produce a male child. Henry got rid of Anne on charges of treason presided over by Thomas Cromwell which were almost certainly false, and she was executed in 1536. In 1537 her replacement, Henrys third wife Jane Seymour, finally bore him a son, who was later to become Edward VI. Jane died in childbed, 12 days after the birth in 1537.

Although Cromwell had proved an effective minister in bringing about the royal divorce and the English Reformation, his position was insecure. The Pilgrimage of Grace, an insurrection in 1536, called for Cromwells dismissal the rebels were put down but it was Henrys fourth, abortive and short-lived marriage to

Anne of Cleves that led to Cromwells downfall. Despite being made Earl of Essex in 1540, three months later he was arrested and executed. Henry made two more marriages, to Katherine Howard executed on grounds of adultery in 1542 and Catherine Parr who survived Henry to die in 1548. None produced any children. Henry made sure that his sole male heir, Edward, was educated by people who believed in

Protestantism rather than Catholicism because he wanted the anti-papal nature of his reformation and his dynasty to become more firmly established. After Cromwells execution, no leading minister emerged in the last seven years of Henrys reign. Overweight, irascible and in failing health, Henry turned his attention to France once more. Despite assembling an army of 40,000 men, only the

town of Boulogne was captured and the French campaign failed. Although more than half the monastic properties had been sold off, forced loans and currency depreciation also had to be used to pay for the war, which contributed to increased inflation. Henry died in London on 28 January 1547. To some, Henry VIII was a strong and ruthless ruler, forcing through changes to the

Church-State relationship which excluded the papacy and brought the clergy under control, thus strengthening the Crowns position and acquiring the monasteries wealth. However, Henrys reformation had produced dangerous Protestant-Roman Catholic differences in the kingdom. The monasteries wealth had been spent on wars and had also built up the economic strength of the aristocracy

and other families in the counties, which in turn was to encourage ambitious Tudor court factions. Significantly, Parliaments involvement in making religious and dynastic changes had been firmly established. For all his concern over establishing his dynasty and the resulting religious upheaval, Henrys six marriages had produced one sickly son and an insecure succession with two princesses Mary and Elizabeth who at one stage had been declared illegitimate - none of whom were to have children.

1 Catherine of Aragon Catherine of Aragon was the youngest surviving child of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. As was common for princesses of the day, her parents almost immediately began looking for a political match for her. When she was three year old, she was betrothed to Arthur, the son of Henry VII of England. Arthur was not even quite two at the time. When she was almost 16, in 1501, Catherine made the journey to

England. It took her three months, and her ships weathered several storms, but she safely made landfall at Plymouth on October 2, 1501. Catherine and Arthur were married on 14 November 1501 in Old St. Pauls Cathedral, London. Catherine was escorted by the grooms younger brother, Henry. After the wedding and celebrations, the young couple moved to Ludlow Castle on the Welsh border. Less than six months later,

Arthur was dead, possibly of the sweating sickness. Although this marriage was short, it was very important in the history of England, as will be apparent. Catherine was now a widow, and still young enough to be married again. Henry VII still had a son, this one much more robust and healthy than his dead older brother. The English king was interested in keeping Catherines dowry, so 14 months after her husbands death,

she was betrothed to the future Henry VIII, who was too young to marry at the time. By 1505, when Henry was old enough to wed, Henry VII wasnt as keen on a Spanish alliance, and young Henry was forced to repudiate the betrothal. Catherines future was uncertain for the next four years. When Henry VII died in 1509 and one of the new young kings actions was to marry

Catherine. She was finally crowned Queen of England in a joint coronation ceremony with her husband Henry VIII on June 24, 1509. Shortly after their marriage, Catherine found herself pregnant. This first child was a stillborn daughter born prematurely in January 1510. This disappointment was soon followed by another pregnancy. Prince Henry was born on January 1, 1511 and then was christened on the 5th.

There were great celebrations for the birth of the young prince, but they were halted by the babys death after 52 days of life. Catherine then had a miscarriage, followed by a short-lived son. On February 1516, she gave birth to a daughter named Mary, and this child lived. There were probably two more pregnancies, the last recorded in 1518. Henry was growing frustrated by his lack of a male heir, but he remained a devoted husband.

He had at least two mistresses that we know of Bessie Blount and Mary Boleyn. By 1526 though, he had begun to separate from Catherine because he had fallen in love with one of her ladies and sister of one of his mistresses Anne Boleyn. It is here that the lives of Henrys first and second wives begin to interweave. By the time his interest in Anne became common knowledge

Catherine was 42 years old and was no longer able to conceive. Henrys main goal now was to get a male heir, which his wife was not able to provide. Somewhere along the way, Henry began to look at the texts of Leviticus which says that if a man takes his brothers wife, they shall be childless. As evidenced above, Catherine and Henry were far from childless, and still had one living child.

But, that child was a girl, and didnt count in Henrys mind. The King began to petition the Pope for an annulment. At first, Catherine was kept in the dark about Henrys plans for their annulment. When the news got to Catherine, she was very upset. She was also at a great disadvantage since the court that would decide the case was far from impartial.

Catherine then appealed directly to the Pope, which she felt would listen to her case since her nephew was Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor. The political and legal debate continued for six years. Catherine was adamant in saying that she and Arthur, her first husband and Henrys brother, did not consummate their marriage and therefore were not truly husband and wife. Catherine sought not only to retain her position, but also that of her daughter

Mary. Things came to a head in 1533 when Anne Boleyn became pregnant. Henry had to act, and his solution was to reject the power of the Pope in England and to have Thomas Cranmer, the archbishop of Canterbury grant the annulment. Catherine was to renounce the title of Queen and would be known as the Princess Dowager of

Wales, something she refused to acknowledge through to the end of her life. Catherine and her daughter were separated and she was forced to leave court. She lived for the next three years in several dank and unhealthy castles and manors with just a few servants. However, she seldom complained of her treatment and spent a great deal of time at prayer. On January 7, 1536, Catherine died at Kimbolton Castle and was buried at

Peterborough Abbey with the ceremony due for her position as Princess Dowager, not as a Queen of England. 2 Anne Boleyn For a woman who played such an important part in English history, we know remarkably little about her earliest years. Antonia Fraser puts Annes birth at 1500 or 1501, probably at

Blickling Norfolk and the date of birth seems to be at the end of May or early June. Other historians put Annes birth as late as 1507 or 1509. Anne spent part of her childhood at the court of the Archduchess Margaret. Fraser puts her age at 12-13, as that was the minimum age for a fille dhonneur. It was from there that she was transferred to the household of

Mary, Henry VIIIs sister, who was married to Louis XII of France. Annes sister Mary was already in the French Queens attendance. However, when Louis died, Mary Boleyn returned to England with Mary Tudor, while Anne remained in France to attend Claude, the new French queen.

Anne remained in France for the next 6 or 7 years. Because of her position, it is possible that she was at the Field of Cloth of Gold, the famous meeting between Henry VIII and the French king, Francis I. During her stay in France she learned to speak French fluently and developed a taste for

French clothes, poetry and music. The legend of Anne Boleyn always includes a sixth finger and a large mole or goiter on her neck. However, one would have to wonder if a woman with these oddities not to mention the numerous other moles and warts she was said to have would be so captivating to the king. She may have had some small moles, as most people do, but they would be more like the attractive beauty

marks. A quote from the Venetian Ambassador said she was not one of the handsomest women in the world She was considered moderately pretty. But, one must consider what pretty was in the 16th century. Anne was the opposite of the pale, blonde-haired, blue-eyed image of beauty. She had dark, olive-colored skin, thick dark brown hair and dark brown eyes which often appeared black. Those large dark eyes were often singled out in descriptions of

Anne. She clearly used them, and the fascination they aroused, to her advantage whenever possible. She was of average height, had small breasts and a long, elegant neck. The argument continues as to whether or not she really had an extra finger on one of her hands. Anne returned to England around 1521 for details for her marriage were being worked out. Meanwhile she went to court to attend Queen Catherine.

Her first recorded appearance at Court was March 1, 1522 at a masque. After her marriage to the heir of Ormonde fell through, she began an affair with Henry Percy, also a rich heir. Cardinal Wolsey put a stop to the romance, which could be why Anne engendered such a hatred of him later in life. It has been suggested that Wolsey stepped in on behalf of the

King to remove Percy from the scene because he had already noticed Anne and wanted her for himself. Fraser asserts that this is not the case since the romance between Anne and Percy ended in 1522 and the King didnt notice Anne until 1526. It is possible that Anne had a precontract with Percy. Somewhere in this time, Anne also had a relationship of some sort with the poet

Sir Thomas Wyatt. Wyatt was married in 1520, so the timing of the supposed affair is uncertain. Wyatt was separated from his wife, but there could be little suggestion of his eventual marriage to Anne. Theirs appears to be more of a courtly love. Exactly when and where Henry VIII first noticed Anne is not known. It is likely that Henry sought to make Anne his mistress, as he had her sister

Mary years before. Maybe drawing on the example of Elizabeth Woodville, Queen to Edward IV and maternal grandmother to Henry VIII who was said to have told King Edward that she would only be his wife, not his mistress, Anne denied Henry VIII sexual favors. We dont know who first had the idea marriage, but eventually it evolved into Queen or nothing for Anne. At first, the court probably thought that

Anne would just end up as another one of Henrys mistresses. But, in 1527 we see that Henry began to seek an annulment of his marriage to Catherine, making him free to marry again. King Henrys passion for Anne can be attested to in the love letters he wrote to her when she was away from court. Henry hated writing letters, and very few documents in his own hand survive.

However, 17 love letters to Anne remain and are preserved in the Vatican library. In 1528, Annes emergence at Court began. Anne also showed real interest in religious reform and may have introduced some of the new ideas to Henry, and gaining the hatred of some members of the Court. When the court spent Christmas at Greenwich that year,

Anne was lodged in nice apartments near those of the King. The legal debates on the marriage of Henry and Catherine of Aragon continued on. Anne was no doubt frustrated by the lack of progress. Her famous temper and tongue showed themselves at times in famous arguments between her and Henry for all the court to see. Anne feared that Henry might go back to

Catherine if the marriage could not be annulled and Anne would have wasted time that she could have used to make an advantageous marriage. Anne was not popular with the people of England. They were upset to learn that at the Christmas celebrations of 1529, Anne was given precedence over the Duchesses of Norfolk and Suffolk, the latter of which was the

Kings own sister, Mary. In this period, records show that Henry began to spend more and more on Anne, buying her clothes, jewelry, and things for her amusement such as playing cards and bows and arrows. The waiting continued and Annes position continued to rise. On the first day of September 1532, she was created Marquess of Pembroke, a title she held in her own right.

In October, she held a position of honor at meetings between Henry and the French King in Calais. Sometime near the end of 1532, Anne finally gave way and by December she was pregnant. To avoid any questions of the legitimacy of the child, Henry was forced into action. Sometime near St. Pauls

Day January 25 1533, Anne and Henry were secretly married. Although the Kings marriage to Catherine was not dissolved, in the Kings mind it had never existed in the first place, so he was free to marry whomever he wanted. On May 23, the Archbishop officially proclaimed that the marriage of Henry and Catherine was invalid. Plans for Annes coronation began.

In preparation, she had been brought by water from Greenwich to the Tower of London dressed in cloth of gold. The barges following her were said to stretch for four miles down the Thames. On the 1st of June, she left the Tower in procession to Westminster Abbey, where she became a crowned an anointed

Queen in a ceremony led by Thomas Cranmer, the Archbishop of Canterbury. By August, preparations were being made for the birth of Annes child, which was sure to be a boy. Names were being chosen, with Edward and Henry the top choices. The proclamation of the childs birth had already been written with prince used to refer to the child. Anne took to her chamber, according to custom, on

August 26, 1533 and on September 7 at about 300 in the afternoon, the Princess Elizabeth was born. Her christening service was scaled down, but still a pleasant affair. The princess white christening robes can currently be seen on display at Sudeley Castle in England. Anne now knew that it was imperative that she produce a son. By January of 1534, she was pregnant again, but the child was either miscarried or stillborn.

In 1535, she was become pregnant again but miscarried by the end of January. The child was reported to have been a boy. The Queen was quite upset, and blamed the miscarriage on her state of mind after hearing that Henry had taken a fall in jousting. She had to have known at this point that her failure to produce a living male heir was a threat to her own life, especially since the

Kings fancy for one of her ladies-in-waiting, Jane Seymour, began to grow. Annes enemies at court began to plot against her using the Kings attentions to Jane Seymour as the catalyst for action. Cromwell began to move in action to bring down the Queen. He persuaded the King to sign a document calling for an investigation that would possibly result

in charges of treason. On April 30, 1536, Annes musician and friend for several years, Mark Smeaton, was arrested and probably tortured into making revelations about the Queen. Next, Sir Henry Norris was arrested and taken to the Tower of London. Then the Queens own brother, George Boleyn, Lord Rochford was arrested. On May 2, the Queen herself was arrested at

Greenwich and was informed of the charges against her adultery, incest and plotting to murder the King. She was then taken to the Tower by barge along the same path she had traveled to prepare for her coronation just three years earlier. In fact, she was lodged in the same rooms she had held on that occasion. There were several more arrests. Sir Francis Weston and William Brereton were charged with adultery with the

Queen. Sir Thomas Wyatt was also arrested, but later released. They were put on trial with Smeaton and Norris at Westminster Hall on May 12, 1536. The men were not allowed to defend themselves, as was the case in charges of treason. They were found guilty and received the required punishment they were to be hanged at Tyburn, cut down while still living and then disemboweled and quartered.

On Monday the 15th, the Queen and her brother were put on trial at the Great Hall of the Tower of London. It is estimated that some 2000 people attended. Anne conducted herself in a calm and dignified manner, denying all the charges against her. Her brother was tried next, with his own wife testifying against him she got her due later in the scandal of Kathryn Howard. Even though the evidence against them was scant, they were both found guilty, with

the sentence being read by their uncle, Thomas Howard, the Duke of Norfolk. They were to be either burnt at the stake which was the punishment for incest or beheaded, at the discretion of the King. On May 17, George Boleyn was executed on Tower Hill. The other four men condemned with the Queen had their sentences commuted from the grisly fate at Tyburn to a simple beheading at the Tower with

Lord Rochford. Anne knew that her time would soon come and started to become hysterical, her behavior swinging from great levity to body- wracking sobs. She received news that an expert swordsman from Calais had been summoned, who would no doubt deliver a cleaner blow with a sharp sword than the traditional axe. It was then that she made the famous comment about her little neck.

Interestingly, shortly before her execution on charges of adultery, the Queens marriage to the King was dissolved and declared invalid. One would wonder then how she could have committed adultery if she had in fact never been married to the King, but this was overlooked, as were so many other lapses of logic in the charges against Anne. They came for Anne on the morning of May 19 to take her to the

Tower Green, where she was to be afforded the dignity of a private execution. She wore a red petticoat under a loose, dark grey gown of damask trimmed in fur. Over that she was a mantle of ermine. Her long, dark hair was bound up under a simple white linen coif over which she wore her usual headdress. She made a short speech before kneeling at the block. Her ladies removed the headdress and tied a blindfold over her eyes.

The sword itself had been hidden under the straw. The swordsman cut off her head with one swift stroke. Annes body and head were put into an arrow chest and buried in an unmarked grave in the Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula which adjoined the Tower Green. Her body was one that was identified in renovations of the chapel under the reign of

Queen Victoria, so Annes final resting place is now marked in the marble floor. 2 Jane Seymour Jane Seymour became Henrys third wife within two weeks of Anne Boleyns death, marrying him in a somewhat private ceremony at her family home, Wolf Hall in Wiltshire, England. A quiet and unassuming woman, she was not noted for her scholarship or artistic talents, like Anne Boleyn, and she was not considered particularly attractive.

She was probably the last person expected to become Henrys Queen. It is thought that Jane, like Anne Boleyn, was originally a maid in waiting to Queen Catharine, and remained at court after Catharine was effectively banished. She was a maid of honour to Anne Boleyn during her rise to power and her marriage, though at some point she left the Court to return home to Wiltshire, perhaps to nurse her father,

Edward Seymour. Wolf Hall had traditionally been a favored hunting lodge for the King, as it was remote and well situated as a rest stop during a days hunting, and it is known that Henry stayed there as a guest of the Seymour family during the autumn of 1535. After that visit, Jane soon returned to Court, and by February of the next year, it was obvious that she was an object of

Henrys affections. Both of Janes brothers, Thomas and Edward Seymour, were ruthlessly ambitious men anxious to be placed highly in Henrys service. Her father had been a royal favorite, serving both Henry VII and Henry VIII before his health failed, but the family had faded into the background politically as well as financially since the rise of Anne Boleyn.

A sister who had come to the Kings attention was an incredible stroke of luck for the Seymour men, particularly as Anne Boleyn and her favorites were definitely losing place in the endlessly shifting sphere of influence at Court. Jane was twenty-six or seven when she came to Henrys attention, and according to the marriage customs of the time, was likely on her way to a lifetime of unmarried spinsterhood. Girls were betrothed young, often at birth or shortly thereafter, during

the Tudor era, and were usually married as soon as they were considered old enough, shortly after menarche. A woman of Janes age was considered to be of mature years, well past the point where she was likely to become a bride. There is some conjecture that she had been betrothed as a child, but by the time she came to Henrys attention, she was well established as a young woman of noble birth who had little chance of being married. Janes brief reappearance at court, prior to the final fall of

Anne Boleyn, was marked with two confrontations with Henrys second Queen. One incident occurred when Anne saw that Jane wore a miniature given to her by Henry, a locket containing a portrait of his mother. Anne was enraged, and tore it from Janes neck, causing a slight injury. The second incident was the infamous scene after Anne discovered

Henry and Jane embracing, setting off the temper tantrum that some said led to the miscarriage of the son Anne was carrying at the time. There are various schools of thought as to the actual involvement of Jane in her whirlwind courtship and rise to the position of Queen. One theory is that she was unintelligent and was simply used as a pawn by her ambitious brothers. Others believe that, as her motto Bound to Obey and

Serve stated, she followed the orders and desires of the King without question, despite any fears she might have and fears would be expected, considering the fates of Henrys first two Queens. Catharine of Aragon had been banished and mistreated for years prior to her death, and Anne Boleyn was rapidly sliding to her final defeat. Lastly, the opinion was held by some, Anne Boleyn among them, that

Jane was scheming and sly, and that she had deliberately attracted the Kings attention as his love for Anne Boleyn faded, actively assisting her family it its rise to a position of power. Jane was not a diarist in fact, it is suspected that like most women of the time, she could only write enough to sign her name so her opinion of her meteoric rise to prominence is unknown, as is her comprehension of it and her possible participation in it.

Henry, however, made no secret of his passion for Jane. Legend has it that he waited anxiously for the cannon shot that heralded the execution of Anne Boleyn, and was on horseback the moment it sounded, headed for Wolf Hall, where Jane had been sent during the weeks after Anne Boleyn had been charged with treason. Henry and

Jane were betrothed the same day, and married on May 30 in a homelike celebration in the barn at Wolf Hall. Henry had no qualms about marrying for a third time, and believed that Jane was his first true wife. But unlike Catharine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn, he hesitated prior to crowning her. The enormous and costly coronation of Anne Boleyn must have rankled, in the light of the evidence against

her and the fact that she, after all the years of waiting and the complete disruption of the Church in England, had failed to produce Henrys long awaited male heir. In other words, a coronation could wait until Jane gave birth to a healthy son. Henry and Jane settled into a quiet domestic life. She was a foil to Anne Boleyn, taking little interest in pageantry and active entertainment.

She was also devout and punctilious in her religious observances, far more Catholic in her devotions than Protestant, as was Henry he continued to hear Mass with all the trappings of the Catholic ceremony for the rest of his life, despite the progressive cleansing of the Anglican Church as far as ritual was concerned. Additionally, she sought to reconcile Henry with his estranged children,

Mary, Elizabeth, and Henry Fitzroy, Henrys illegitimate son from a liaison with Elizabeth Blount seventeen years before. Jane had long been a proponent of Catharine of Aragon and the Princess Mary, and now brought about reconciliation between Henry and his oldest child. Mary had finally given in, after the deaths of her mother and Anne Boleyn, where it became clear that no matter how highly ranked a woman was in

England, she could fall prey to the executioner, and had sworn to the Act of Supremacy she was given absolution for this sin from the Pope, as she swore to the Act under duress. Very much alone and friendless, living in complete obscurity at Hatfield with her little sister, Elizabeth, Mary had grown increasingly bitter as she entered womanhood. Now that the obstacle of Marys refusal to swear to the

Act of Supremacy had been removed, Jane was able to convince Henry to have her return to Court, after a virtual banishment of nearly ten years. Jane also brought Anne Boleyns child, Elizabeth, forward and treated her kindly, as she did Henry Fitzroy, who had recently married. But two months after Henrys third marriage, Henry Fitzroy died of the same wasting disease that had claimed so many

Tudors during their teens, leaving the King without any male heir, legitimate or not. Henry had once before tried to elevate Henry Fitzroys status while Catharine of Aragon was still Queen, hoping that he could eventually legitimize the boy and make him his heir, as Catharine neared menopause. Now this option was completely closed to him and for Jane, the pressure to produce a son was now intense.

Janes pregnancy was confirmed in early 1537. Her cravings and whims were indulged, but she was also very restricted, for fear that harm would come to her or the child she carried. But the pregnancy, unlike those of Catharine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn, passed without incident. After a long and difficult labor, she gave birth to Henrys son at Hampton Court in October. A lavish christening was performed on

October 15, 1537. Mary was named as the childs godmother. Elizabeth had a prominent part in the ceremony as well the three year old was slated to carry the holy oil that her baby brother would be christened with, though she was actually carried in the arms of the Queens brother, Thomas Seymour, as her gown and train were too heavy for her to walk in. Jane, as a mother and as the Queen, was not expected to attend the ceremony women who had given birth

were not accustomed to return to church services until the ritual known as cleansing of women after childbirth was performed, but she was expected to receive the guests prior to the feasting afterward. So she left her bed in her weakened condition, dressed and carried out her duty as Queen, receiving the multitude of guests one by one while reclining on a couch. Her obedience to duty probably brought about her death, as she became ill with puerperal fever the

next day. Jane died on October 24, 1537. Mary was assigned to be chief mourner by Henry, who left Court immediately to mourn in private. An enormous funeral ritual was begun, which involved moving the Queens body from place to place, while a life sized wax effigy later ordered to be burned by King Henry, as it was a painful reminder of her in life rested on top of the closed and sealed coffin.

Queen Jane was finally buried at St. Georges Chapel at Windsor Castle, where Henrys own tomb was being constructed. Janes tenure as Englands Queen lasted only eighteen months, but she had accomplished what her two predecessors had not she had provided Henry with a legitimate and healthy male heir. She had also reconciled Henry with his eldest daughter and was probably instrumental in having

Mary made godmother to the child as well, assuring him of guidance and support in the years to come, as Mary loved children and was passionately devoted to the baby. Jane was probably unaware that her rise to the position of Queen would have far reaching effects on England, apart from the fact that she had supplied the country with a future King. Her brothers, Edward and Thomas, had risen in prominence with her, and would retain

powerful positions at Court throughout Henrys reign. Edward Seymour would become the Protector of Henrys son after Henrys death and Edward Seymour was a secret Protestant. As a result, Prince Edward would be raised as Protestant. He was lodged and educated far from Court at his fathers order to protect him from disease, which made

Edward Seymours task of producing a Protestant King for England that much easier, as Henry VIIIs contact with his young son was very limited. Edward VI would become Englands first truly Protestant King, a development which would further change the socio-religious demographic of England and pave the way for the violent years of his older sister

Marys reign. She would, as a staunch Catholic, attempt to return England to the Catholic Church, earning herself the nickname Bloody Mary, as force, including torture and execution, was used in Englands conversion. The legend of Jane Seymour as all-sacrificing to supply Henry with a son became entrenched within days of her death.

The myth that she underwent a Caesarean section to give birth was propagated in several ballads, where Jane insists that Henry have her side cut open to save his babye. In the light of the facts, Jane underwent no such surgery, as she lived for two weeks after the birth of her son. In those days, Caesarean section was an immediate death sentence, and was not condoned by either the Catholic or Anglican Church, as it consisted of making a choice between the life of the mother

and the life of the child. Anyone making such a choice would be guilty of murder. Caesarean section was used only in cases where the mother was dead, and there was a chance that the child would still be alive. If Jane had undergone a Caesarean section, she would have bled to death within minutes. Henry seemed to genuinely mourn Janes death, and remained unmarried for more than two years.

It was at this time that he also began to fail in health and became very heavy and irritable. Later, during his marriage to Katherine Parr, he was to have a dynastic portrait done of his entire family his father and mother are present, as are Henry, Edward, Mary and Elizabeth. But the Queen in the painting is not Katharine Parr, who posed for the artist the face is that of

Jane Seymour. 3 Anne of Cleves Henry VIII remained single for over two years after Jane Seymours death, possibly giving some credence to the thought that he genuinely mourned for her. However, it does seem that someone, possibly Thomas Cromwell, began making inquiries shortly after Janes death about a possible foreign bride for Henry. Henrys first marriage had been a foreign alliance of sorts, although it is almost certain that

the two were truly in love for some time. His next two brides were love matches and Henry could have had little or no monetary or political gain from them. But the events of the split from Rome left England isolated, and probably vulnerable. It was these circumstances that led Henry and his ministers to look at the possibility of a bride to secure an alliance. Henry did also want to be sure he was getting a desirable bride, so he had agents

in foreign courts report to him on the appearance and other qualities of various candidates. He also sent painters to bring him images of these women. Hans Holbein, probably the most famous of the Tudor court painters, was sent to the court of the Duke of Cleves, who had two sisters Amelia and Anne. When Holbein went in 1539, Cleves was seen as an important potential ally in the event

France and the Holy Roman Empire who had somewhat made a truce in their long history of conflict decided to move against the countries who had thrown off the Papal authority. England then sought alliances with countries that had been supporting the reformation of the church. Several of the Duchys and principalities along the Rhine were Lutheran. Holbein painted the sisters of the

Duke of Cleves and Henry decided to have a contract drawn up for his marriage to Anne. Although the King of France and the Emperor had gone back to their usual state of animosity, Henry proceeded with the match. The marriage took place on January 6, 1540. By then, Henry was already looking for ways to get out of the marriage. Anne was ill-suited for life at the English court.

Her upbringing in Cleves had concentrated on domestic skills and not the music and literature so popular at Henrys court. And, most famously, Henry did not find his new bride the least bit attractive and is said to have called her a Flanders Mare. In addition to his personal feelings for wanting to end the marriage, there were now political ones as well. Tension between the Duke of Cleves and the Empire was increasing towards war and

Henry had no desire to become involved. Last but not least, at some point, Henry had become attracted to young Kathryn Howard. Anne was probably smart enough to know that she would only be making trouble for herself if she raised any obstacles to Henrys attempts to annul the marriage. She testified that the match had not been consummated and that her previous engagement to the son of

the Duke of Lorraine had not been properly broken. After the marriage had been dissolved, Anne accepted the honorary title as the Kings Sister. She was given property, including Hever Castle, formerly the home of Anne Boleyn. Anne lived away from court quietly in the countryside until 1557, and attended the coronation of her former step-daughter,

Mary I. She is buried in a somewhat hard to find tomb in Westminster Abbey. 2 Katherine Howard Katherine Howard might be considered the most tragic of Henrys Queens. The daughter of Edmund Howard, a poor member of the large and powerful Howard family, she was orphaned young, and brought up in the household of the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk. Her childhood was lonely, her education neglected and affection for a penniless

child who was nothing more than a financial burden was nonexistent. Katherines actual birthdate is not known, just as there is no definitive portrait of her the portrait above has been thought to be her, but is also possibly of Jane Seymours sister, Elizabeth. It is thought that she was between the ages of sixteen and nineteen when she was brought to Court as a lady-in-waiting to

Anna of Cleves, through the machinations of her uncle, the Duke of Norfolk. The Howards were a Catholic family, and the Duke wished to increase his influence over King Henry. The Howards had been in disgrace since the fall of Anne Boleyn, who was part of their clan. Katherine

Howard was Annes first cousin, and she was obviously deliberately placed in Anna of Cleves English household as bait for King Henry, whose displeasure with his recent marriage was well known. The bait worked. Henry became enamoured of the young woman and was soon paying court to her, doting on her and making presents to her. Though she was not particularly literate or educated, she was lively, entertaining, kind and sweet. She loved music, as did

Henry. She was flattered by his attentions, and she wanted to be Queen. A man who was old enough to be her father was showering her with affection and promises, and she was married to him sixteen days after his divorce from Anna of Cleves. Henrys health had been in obvious decline since Jane Seymours death, and had begun failing even earlier, after hed injured his leg while falling in

a joust during his marriage to Anne Boleyn. Now, married to a young and vivacious bride, he attempted to make some amends for his condition, adhering to a rigorous diet and exercising regularly, hoping to regain some shadow of his youthful form. He determined to make his Court, which had grown rather dour during his prolonged mourning for Jane Seymour, a pleasant and lively place for his new

Queen, and ordered entertainments and dancing, sometimes taking part himself as his health would permit. He had new coins struck in his Queens honor, an unprecedented event, and presented them to her publicly, along with a thornless rose that his gardeners had developed at his request. The motto on the coins read Truly a rose without a thorn one of Henrys nicknames for Katherine. Henry felt so enlivened that he embarked with

Katherine on a long progress through England. This had been a common practice of English royalty before him, but Henry had never made an extended journey through his own country. He departed with his Queen for the north of England, and was gone from London for several months. The Howards had many enemies at Court, as did any powerful family, and many people were shocked by

Henrys precipitous marriage to a young woman of common birth and doubtful background. Katherine had acquired her own household when she was made Queen, and many Howard cousins and hangers-on came to her and were given positions in her employ. She was quite kind hearted and accepted into her household several people it would have been better for her to turn away. Among them were a young music master named

Edward Manox and a cousin of hers, Francis Dereham, whom she made her private secretary. Rumors began to circulate about Katherines past and soon were joined by darker rumors of her present infidelity to the King. Henry was blissfully unaware of the stories at first, and returned from his progress with his wife in tow, ready to settle down to the daily business of governing once more. But evidence had been gathered against the young Queen, and in

November of 1541, the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer presented Henry with this information. Katherines secrets were revealed. During her girlhood at the home of her great-aunt, the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk, Katherine had led a promiscuous life. Firstly, she had been caught in a compromising position with

Edward Manox, her music teacher, when she was thirteen. The Duchess had immediately fired Manox, and beat Katherine severely for her transgressions. But the flirtation with Manox had been little more than that. There was even more damning evidence against the Queen. Though the elderly Duchess carefully locked the dormitory of the single women of her household

each night, she slept far from it, and was nearly deaf as well. What should have been a chaste and safe stronghold was far from it the dormitory was actually an unofficial brothel. The windows were opened as soon as the door was locked, and men from the area had free access to the room, and the women within it. Katherine formed a liaison with Francis Dereham during this time, and he was a frequent visitor to the dormitory.

In fact, they had sworn before witnesses to marry each other as soon as she was older, and called each other husband and wife. When he went on a journey to Ireland, he left his money in her possession, and made presents to her of clothing and jewelry. Katherine, in turn, bestowed sexual favors on him, going so far as to have intercourse with him in full view of the other people in the dormitory. When

Dereham was questioned under the influence of torture, he revealed enough particulars about Katherines anatomy, including a birthmark or scar on her upper thigh, to let Henry know that his testimony could not be trumped up. Katherine had been brought to court while Dereham was away, and was Queen when he returned. She had made a terrible mistake in allowing him and

Edward Manox to become members of her household. But Henry might have overlooked the earlier transgressions, though they grieved him deeply. After all, at that time he hadnt known of her existence, and she had been very young and lacking in proper chaperonage and guidance. Then he was presented with the evidence that damned Katherine testimony and love letters indicating that she had been and was still carrying on an adulterous

affair with a gentleman of Henrys bedchamber, her cousin, Thomas Culpeper, with the help of her cousin-in-law, Jane Rochford, who had been George Boleyns wife she had testified against him and Anne Boleyn at their trial. Included among them was a letter where Katherine stated that if she were free of her marriage to the

King, she would marry Culpeper. At that time, it was against the law to even mention or consider the death of the King it was treason, and the punishment was death. Henry became hysterical when confronted with the proof that his rose without a thorn had betrayed him with a trusted member of his own household. He wept so violently that he lost all control and vomited on the table in front of Cranmer and the other advisors who were there when the

King was presented with the evidence of his Queens crimes. He demanded that someone bring him a sword, so that he could kill Katherine and Culpeper himself then he wept again and inquired must so sweet a thing die Eventually, he had to be restrained and was confined to his bedchamber. Culpeper was arrested and taken to the Tower, while

Katherine was ordered to stay in her quarters. Henry recovered himself, and two days later, was at Mass with most of the Court when Katherine, now terrified and aware that she was in danger, got past her guards and ran to the Chapel, nearly reaching the door before she was caught and dragged back to her rooms, screaming Henrys name all the way. Henry did not react or give any sign that he had heard. He would never see her again. Katherine confessed to everything.

She seemed confused, and didnt understand the enormity of the crimes that she was admitting to, and kept asking to see the King. She also asked about Culpeper. She was not tried, but was taken to the Tower. When given the option to have her marriage to Henry made invalid by admitting to an earlier precontract with Francis Dereham, she refused, probably not understanding that this was her opportunity to save her life.

Then her only crimes would have been against Dereham, not the King, but Katherine would not admit that she had not been Queen of England. When told that she was sentenced to die by beheading, she requested that the block be brought to her chambers in the Tower, so that she could practice how she would lay her head on it, not wanting to appear ungraceful at her execution.

Those who attended her said that she practiced approaching, kneeling and laying her head on it, and then stayed by it for a long time, praying. Thomas Culpeper, Francis Dereham and Edward Manox were executed as traitors. Henry commuted the sentences of Culpeper and Dereham to simple beheading, as they were gentlemen, but the base-born Manox suffered the full rigors of a traitors death he was hung, cut down while still alive,

disemboweled and his body was then cut into four quarters. Katherine was executed privately on Tower Green on February 13, 1542. Jane Rochford was executed at the same time for her complicity in Katherines affair with Culpeper. Rochford was reported to state in her final speech, I die today for the witness I bore against my husband and

Queen Anne. The things I testified to then were not true. After Jane Rochford met her end in full view of Katherine, the Queen of England was brought forward. She too made a final speech, in which she prayed that God would grant the King good health. Then, in one of the contradictory moments that were so plentiful in her life she said, I would rather die the wife of

Culpeper than the Queen of England. Katherine Howard was buried under the floor of St. Peter ad Vincula, next to the body of her cousin, Anne Boleyn. Katherines short and tragic reign had no lasting effect on England. She had not dabbled in political affairs, and she was Queen so briefly that her family did not become firmly entrenched at

Court. Her great-aunt, the elderly Dowager Duchess of Norfolk, was arrested for a time for possible collusion in Katherines early sexual indiscretions, but she was soon released. Her uncle, the Duke of Norfolk was not so lucky, but followed her to the block. He had evaded the axe years before in the matter of his other niece,

Anne Boleyn by turning against her, but that tactic didnt work for him this time. Henrys health and spirits took a downward turn that would continue for the rest of his life. He had probably loved Katherine deeply, and her betrayal made him a broken man. He was becoming very mentally unstable, and frequently cried out that he saw her or heard her voice in the corridor at Hampton Court where she had tried to reach him when she found that her secrets were

no longer such. Katherines greatest asset was probably also her greatest weakness her kind heartedness and the desire for love and affection that accompanied it. She had never been known to scheme against anyone, or to attempt to use her influence over Henry to harm anyone. She brought Princess Elizabeth forward, befriending her and calling her kinswoman, though there was danger in angering the King with the reminder of

Anne Boleyn. When she learned of Margaret Pole, the Countess of Salisbury, once Princess Marys governess, who had been imprisoned in the Tower for years after Catharine of Aragons banishment from Court, she risked Henrys anger once again by sending warm clothing and bonnets to the old woman, though she did not even know her. Later, at Marys request, she pled with

Henry for the Countess of Salisburys life, to no avail, earning herself nothing but a vicious reprimand. 3 Katherine Parr Katherine Parr, the last of Henrys wives was a different choice for the aging King. She was the daughter of Thomas Parr of Kendal, a modest country squire who had distinguished himself in the service of both Henry VII and Henry VIII. Thomas Parr died in 1517 and his widow chose not to remarry.

She encouraged the education and advancement of her children, a trait Katherine would show in her treatment of her future step-children. Katherines brother, William, was given the title of Marquis of Northampton in 1547. Katherine was first married to Sir Edward Burough, but was widowed shortly after in 1529.

Her second husband was Sir John Nevill, Lord Latimer. He was a wealthy landowner in Yorkshire and had an estate there called Snape Hall. He died in 1542 and had no children by Katherine. By this time, Katherine was becoming well known for her learning and overall sensitive and caring nature. She was also gaining an interest in the rising

Protestant faith. Not much is known about Henrys courtship of Katherine. However, before the King stepped in, she may have been considering marrying Thomas Seymour, brother to the late Queen Jane and uncle to Prince Edward. Katherine rejected Seymours proposal in order to marry the King, although she probably didnt have much of a choice in the matter.

18 months had gone by since Kathryn Howards execution by the time Henry and Katherine Parr were married on July 12, 1543. Henrys health had been declining such that his last wife must have been as much a nurse as anything else. Katherine managed to soothe the Kings temper and bring his family closer together. Although the Queen was scarcely older than the Princess

Mary, she, along with Elizabeth and Edward, saw Katherine as a stabilizing mother figure. Katherine arranged for the best tutors for the children and encouraged them in their learning. Katherines interest in Protestants almost proved to be her undoing. Factions at court were envious of the Queens influence on Henry and sought to destroy her by linking her with the heretical religious reformers.

But Katherine wisely made a show of her submissiveness to the King when confronted and probably saved her life. Katherine outlived Henry, who died January 28, 1547. Prince Edward succeeded as Edward VI. His older uncle, Edward Seymour, Lord Somerset, became Protector since the young king was not yet 10 years old.

The other Seymour brother, Thomas, once again sought the hand of Katherine Parr, and this time she was free to accept. Katherine was soon pregnant with Seymours son, and gave birth to a daughter named Mary at Sudeley Castle on August 30, 1548. Unfortunately, Katherine did not recover from the childbirth and died on

September 5. Katherine Parr is buried at St. Marys Church at Sudeley Castle. 2 Henry VIII died in 1547, after months of illness. He left one legitimate heir, Edward VI, a frail child of nine. Henrys daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, long declared illegitimate, posed serious threats to the throne of their brother. England had ceased to be a Catholic country with allegiance to

Rome during Henrys reign, though it was torn between Catholic and Protestant factions during the reigns of Edward and then MaryI. Henrys interest in culture and education had converted his court from a medieval establishment into a centre of Renaissance culture. This cultural emphasis reached full flower during the reign of his daughter,

Elizabeth I. During his reign, Henry presented many different faces to many different people. Ambassadors to his court were puzzled by him, finding him mercurial of mood. It might be useful to remember that it is nearly impossible to view a historical figure without filtering him through the mores and values of our own time. Though many of Henrys actions seem brutal and repulsive to us now, it should be remembered that he lived in a time

when rulers were absolute, and a bear baiting or execution involving drawing and quartering was considered an afternoons entertainment for the average Englishman. 4189 After the pervading gloom of Henry Tudor s last years, Henry VIII came to the throne on the crest of a wave of popularity, for this handsome, beardless youth of seventeen embodied a new age and seemed the antithesis of his father.

He was tall and well proportioned, had a fair complexion and auburn hair combed short and straight in the French fashion indeed he was altogether the handsomest potentate I have ever set eyes on , wrote an envoy not given to exaggeration. He was athletic, riding well, accurate in his marksmanship and determined to shine in jousts. He had received an enviable general education, understanding

Latin easily, speaking French fluently. The boy with profound interests in theological questions and in the problems of the scholarship which worried his friend Erasmus, and possessing a fair for music-making of all kinds. He was a Renaissance prince to his fingertips, who was determined to make his court a centre for the arts and humane studies. He dressed superbly and by natural grace commanded the stage with an easy authority.

There was no question that he was a strong personality who would leave an indelible mark on his country. For the future the whole worlds will talk of him , commented a Venetian in London. Machiavelli who never met him described Henry by repute as rich, ferocious and greedy for glory . Bibliographic list 1. History of the Monarchy The

Tudors Henry VIII httpwww.royal.gov.ukoutputPage19.asp 2. Six Wives of Henry VIII httptudorhistory.orgwives 3. The Henry VIII Page httpwww.geocities.comSoHoStudios1344henr yviii.html 4. The Lives of the Kings and Queens of England edited by Antonia Fraser London 1993. 5. The World Book Encyclopedia.

Chicago 1997 Vol. 5