Reading comprehension

Introduction
What is reading? Reading is about understanding writtentexts. It is a complex activity that involves both perception and thought.Reading consists of two related processes: word recognition and comprehension.Word recognition refers to the process of perceiving how written symbolscorrespond to one’s spoken language. Comprehension is the process of makingsense of words, sentences and connected text. Readers typically make use of backgroundknowledge, vocabulary, grammatical knowledge, experience with text and otherstrategies to help them understand written text.
Researchs and classroom practices support the use of abalanced approach in teaching reading comprehension. Because reading comprehensiondepends on efficient word recognition and comprehension, instruction shoulddevelop reading skills and strategies, as well as build on learners’ knowledgethrough the use of authentic texts.
The theme of the research work consists in the new way oflooking at the problem of teaching reading. Since teaching reading comprehensionwas always underestimated in teaching English as a second language, nonethelessit plays a great role in second language acquisition.
The aim is to analyze the existentproblems in teaching reading comprehension and find the ways out of thisproblem by suggesting a series of exercises that can be useful in classroomactivities.
Thus,according to the set aim we are to solve the following tasks:
- to determine the aim and nature of teaching reading comprehension;
- to open the essence of
- to describe the reading skills and teaching technics;
- to describe different approaches to teaching reading;
- to work out new technologies in teaching reading;
Thescientific novelty: few would dispute the claim that comprehensionis necessary in order for language acquisition to occur. In order tocommunicate effectively, learners must understand what is being said. Tofunction successfully with a target language, learners depend upon theirability to comprehend the spoken and written word. Empirical studies haveidentified a positive relationship between listening ability and languageacquisition as well as between reading ability and language acquisition.
The theoretical and practical value of theresearch work consist in the material that was used during the investigationwork which may be used in further researches and be helpful in lectures onmethodology of the English language as well as to teachers and students in theirpractical lessons.
Material under analysis is the literature on the theme of thework.
teaching reading exercise

1. The General Characteristics of Teaching ReadingComprehension1.1 Reading Purpose and ReadingComprehension
Traditionally, the purpose of learningto read in a language has been to have access to the literature written in thatlanguage. In language instruction, reading materials have traditionally beenchosen from literary texts that represent «higher» forms of culture.
This approach assumes that studentslearn to read a language by studying its vocabulary, grammar, and sentencestructure, not by actually reading it. In this approach, lower level learnersread only sentences and paragraphs generated by textbook writers and instructors.The reading of authentic materials is limited to the works of great authors andreserved for upper level students who have developed the language skills neededto read them.
The communicative approach to languageteaching has given instructors a different understanding of the role of readingin the language classroom and the types of texts that can be used ininstruction. When the goal of instruction is communicative competence, everydaymaterials such as train schedules, newspaper articles, and travel and tourismWeb sites become appropriate classroom materials, because reading them is oneway communicative competence is developed. Instruction in reading and readingpractice thus become essential parts of language teaching at every level.
Reading is an activity with a purpose. Aperson may read in order to gain information or verify existing knowledge, orin order to critique a writer's ideas or writing style. A person may also readfor enjoyment, or to enhance knowledge of the language being read. Thepurpose(s) for reading guide the reader's selection of texts.
The purpose for reading also determinesthe appropriate approach to reading comprehension. A person who needs to knowwhether she can afford to eat at a particular restaurant needs to comprehendthe pricing information provided on the menu, but does not need to recognizethe name of every appetizer listed. A person reading poetry for enjoyment needsto recognize the words the poet uses and the ways they are put together, butdoes not need to identify main idea and supporting details. However, a personusing a scientific article to support an opinion needs to know the vocabularythat is used, understand the facts and cause-effect sequences that arepresented, and recognize ideas that are presented as hypotheses and givens.
Reading research shows that good readers
· Readextensively
· Integrate information in the text with existing knowledge
· Have a flexible reading style, depending on what they are reading
· Aremotivated
· Rely on different skills interacting: perceptual processing,phonemic processing, recall
· Read for a purpose; reading serves a functionReading as aProcessHistorically,listening and reading skills have received less attention in language teachingthan have the productive skills of speaking and writing. Die in part to a lackof knowledge about receptive skills, teachers often failed to devote explicitattention to devoting reading abilities, assuming that comprehension wouldoccur on its own. More recently, however, the profession has recognized thatmerely exposing learners to oral or written input is not sufficient and thatexplicit teaching of comprehension strategies is needed.
Reading is an interactive process thatgoes on between the reader and the text, resulting in comprehension. The textpresents letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs that encode meaning. Thereader uses knowledge, skills, and strategies to determine what that meaningis.
Reader knowledge, skills, and strategiesinclude
· Linguistic competence: the ability to recognize the elements ofthe writing system; knowledge of vocabulary; knowledge of how words arestructured into sentences
· Discourse competence: knowledge of discourse markers and how theyconnect parts of the text to one another
· Sociolinguistic competence: knowledge about different types oftexts and their usual structure and content
· Strategic competence: the ability to use top-down strategies, aswell as knowledge of the language (a bottom-up strategy)
The purpose(s) for reading and the typeof text determine the specific knowledge, skills, and strategies that readersneed to apply to achieve comprehension. Reading comprehension is thus much morethan decoding. Reading comprehension results when the reader knows which skillsand strategies are appropriate for the type of text, and understands how toapply them to accomplish the reading purpose.1.2 Goals andTechniques for Teaching Reading Comprehension
Instructors want to produce studentswho, even if they do not have complete control of the grammar or an extensivelexicon, can fend for themselves in communication situations. In the case ofreading, this means producing students who can use reading strategies tomaximize their comprehension of text, identify relevant and non-relevantinformation, and tolerate less than word-by-word comprehension.The ReadingProcess
To accomplish this goal, instructorsfocus on the process of reading rather than on its product.
· They develop students' awareness of the reading process andreading strategies by asking students to think and talk about how they read intheir native language.
· They allow students to practice the full repertoire of readingstrategies by using authentic reading tasks. They encourage students to read tolearn (and have an authentic purpose for reading) by giving students somechoice of reading material.
· When working with reading tasks in class, they show students thestrategies that will work best for the reading purpose and the type of text.They explain how and why students should use the strategies.
· They have students practice reading strategies in class and askthem to practice outside of class in their reading assignments. They encouragestudents to be conscious of what they're doing while they complete readingassignments.
· They encourage students to evaluate their comprehension andself-report their use of strategies. They build comprehension checks intoin-class and out-of-class reading assignments, and periodically review how andwhen to use particular strategies.
· They encourage the development of reading skills and the use ofreading strategies by using the target language to convey instructions andcourse-related information in written form: office hours, homework assignments,test content.
· They do not assume that students will transfer strategy use fromone task to another. They explicitly mention how a particular strategy can beused in a different type of reading task or with another skill.
By raising students' awareness ofreading as a skill that requires active engagement, and by explicitly teachingreading strategies, instructors help their students develop both the abilityand the confidence to handle communication situations they may encounter beyondthe classroom. In this way they give their students the foundation forcommunicative competence in the new language.IntegratingReading Comprehension Strategies
Instruction in reading comprehensionstrategies is not an add-on, but rather an integral part of the use of readingactivities in the language classroom. Instructors can help their studentsbecome effective readers by teaching them how to use strategies before, during,and after reading.
Before reading: Plan for the readingtask
· Set a purpose or decide in advance what to read for
· Decide if more linguistic or background knowledge is needed
· Determine whether to enter the text from the top down (attend tothe overall meaning) or from the bottom up (focus on the words and phrases)
During and after reading: Monitorcomprehension
· Verify predictions and check for inaccurate guesses
· Decide what is and is not important to understand
· Rereadto check comprehension
· Askfor help
After reading: Evaluate comprehensionand strategy use
· Evaluate comprehension in a particular task or area
· Evaluate overall progress in reading and in particular types ofreading tasks
· Decide if the strategies used were appropriate for the purpose andfor the task
· Modifystrategies if necessaryUsing AuthenticMaterials and Approaches
For students to develop communicativecompetence in reading, classroom and homework reading activities must resemble(or be) real-life reading tasks that involve meaningful communication. Theymust therefore be authentic in three ways.
1. The reading material must beauthentic: It must be the kind of material that students will need and want tobe able to read when traveling, studying abroad, or using the language in othercontexts outside the classroom.
When selecting texts for studentassignments, remember that the difficulty of a reading text is less a functionof the language, and more a function of the conceptual difficulty and thetask(s) that students are expected to complete. Simplifying a text by changingthe language often removes natural redundancy and makes the organizationsomewhat difficult for students to predict. This actually makes a text moredifficult to read than if the original were used.
Rather than simplifying a text bychanging its language, make it more approachable by eliciting students'existing knowledge in pre-reading discussion, reviewing new vocabulary beforereading, and asking students to perform tasks that are within their competence,such as skimming to get the main idea or scanning for specific information,before they begin intensive reading.
2. The reading purpose must beauthentic: Students must be reading for reasons that make sense and haverelevance to them. «Because the teacher assigned it» is not an authentic reasonfor reading a text.
To identify relevant reading purposes,ask students how they plan to use the language they are learning and whattopics they are interested in reading and learning about. Give them opportunitiesto choose their reading assignments, and encourage them to use the library, theInternet, and foreign language newsstands and bookstores to find other thingsthey would like to read.
3. The reading approach must beauthentic: Students should read the text in a way that matches the readingpurpose, the type of text, and the way people normally read. This means thatreading aloud will take place only in situations where it would take placeoutside the classroom, such as reading for pleasure. The majority of students'reading should be done silently.
Students do not learn to read by readingaloud. A person who reads aloud and comprehends the meaning of the text iscoordinating word recognition with comprehension and speaking and pronunciationability in highly complex ways. Students whose language skills are limited arenot able to process at this level, and end up having to drop one or more of theelements. Usually the dropped element is comprehension, and reading aloudbecomes word calling: simply pronouncing a series of words without regard forthe meaning they carry individually and together. Word calling is notproductive for the student who is doing it, and it is boring for other studentsto listen to.
· There are two ways to use reading aloud productively in thelanguage classroom. Read aloud to your students as they follow along silently.You have the ability to use inflection and tone to help them hear what the textis saying. Following along as you read will help students move fromword-by-word reading to reading in phrases and thought units, as they do intheir first language.
· Use the «read and look up» technique. With this technique, astudent reads a phrase or sentence silently as many times as necessary, thenlooks up (away from the text) and tells you what the phrase or sentence says.This encourages students to read for ideas, rather than for word recognition.
1.3Reading Comprehension Strategies
Readingcomprehension is defined as the level of understanding of a passage or text.Reading at the rate of 200 to 220 words per minute is considered as a normalspeed of reading. For normal reading rates 75% is an acceptable level ofcomprehension. That means if a student can understand the meaning of at least75% of the total text given then it is regarded as acceptable limits forreading comprehension.
Readingis an active process that require an interplay between various types ofknowledge.
Accordingto Canale and Swain’s model of communicative competence, listeners and readersdraw upon four types of competencies as they attempt to comprehend an oral orwritten message.
1. grammatical competence: knowledge of morphology, syntax,vocabulary, and mechanics;
2. sociolinguistic competence: knowing what is expected socially andculturally by native speakers of the target language;
3. discourse competence: the ability to use cohesive devices such aspronouns, conjunctions, and transitional phrases to link meaning acrosssentences, as well as the ability to recognize how coherence is used tomaintain the message’s input;
4. strategic competence: the ability to use a number of guessingstrategies to compensate for missing knowledge.
Readersrely upon the types of knowledge described above as they perform a variety oftasks in the comprehension process.
Variousmethods are used to improve Reading comprehension that include Training theability to self assess comprehension, actively test comprehension using a setof questions, and by improving metacognition. Practice plays more pivotal partin development and honing the skills of reading comprehension. Self assessmentwith help of elaborative interrogation and summarizing helps.
Effectivereading comprehension is the culmination of mastering vocabulary, phonics,fluency, and reading comprehension skills. Person having good comprehensionskills is considered as active reader, with an ability to interact with thewords by understanding its complete meaning and the concept behind it. Thusskill of reading comprehension distinguishes an active reader from a passivereader who just read the text without getting its meaning.
Readingcomprehension teaching aims at-
1.To let better grasping of the context, sequence and the characters narrated intext.
2.Certain parts of the text can confuse readers. Reading comprehension skillsworks on this aspect to get the clear idea of the meaning of the text.
3.Helps to create the questionnaire based on the text about its theme or idea. Itoften helps in better understanding of the said paragraph.
4.It helps to link the event of narration with our previous experiences andpredict the next probable event in the course based on the information given inthe narration.
Testing
TestingComprehension reading has always proved a great tool in the assessment of thestudent’ ability as it provides a feedback on the progress of student. It alsoenhances the self ability to judge ourselves, provided such tests are carefullydesigned. The carefully designed comprehension test is a cleverly constructedset of questions targeted at the summery, overall meaning of text includingmost important meanings of words. The questionnaire can be of different typeslike open ended question, closed formats or multiple choice questions.
Thusintroduced the Informal Reading Inventories (IRI), which is a classroom basedlesson directing and monitoring the progress system. However, because of itslaborious construction, another format is constructed known as criterion basedInformal Reading Inventory.
InformalReading Inventory
AnIRI provides a good description of three levels of comprehension readingprogress of immense importance.
1.Frustration Level or Inability Level where word decoding accuracy is just below90% with comprehension accuracy below 70%.
2.Instructional Level or ability supported with guidance where word decodingaccuracy is around 90% with comprehension accuracy around 75%.
3.Independent Level where student doesn’t require the assistance anymore havingword decoding accuracy is well above 97% with comprehension accuracy below 90%.
Although,initially IRI provided the frame for recording responses to the posedquestions, to be analyzed later to find out the strong and gray areas ofstudent, nowadays it also offers many add-ons to get a much elaborative pictureof its progress.
InformalReading-Thinking Inventory (IR-TI)
Inaddition, in 1995, Manzo and McKenna developed an innovation as InformalReading-Thinking Inventory, which is aimed at other related areas like thinkingdevelopment of student besides his word decoding and comprehension accuracypower. It is format which facilitates additional measuring tool of highercognitive progress and comprehension. It measures the progress on three levels– how good the student in reading lines, reading between lines and readingbeyond the lines (recognition, inference and its interpretation andapplication). The most significant aspect of the IR-TI is the separate judgmentit makes of basic comprehension and separately of critical-constructivecomprehension.
InformalReading and Thinking Inventory (IR-TI) provides a set of graded word listswhere each list is constructed at a given difficulty of specific grade. Theselists are given to the students which mark the first stage in testing tomeasure his independence level. It is always recommended to give the studentthe easier step first and then moving gradually to the more difficult ones toboost his confidence. Graded lists are found as quick and effective tool inassessment of student’s levels.
Aftergraded lists, graded passages are given to the student. The student is asked toread the passage aloud, and then answer the questions. While reading, theteacher records any «unexpected response» like omission, substitution,insertion, self correction, repetition and hesitation. Once the studentfinishes with his reading, the book is kept shut and the related questions willbe asked. Scoring is done on the basis of answers given and the accuracy ofreading and its fluency.
Effortsare put continuously to enhance this format even more precise and are focusedat developing one’s worldview, regarded as the highest stage of comprehensionreading.

2.Problems in Reading Comprehension
Proficientreading depends on the ability to recognize words quickly and effortlessly. Ifword recognition is difficult, students use too much of their processingcapacity to read individual words, which interferes with their ability tocomprehend what is read.
Fewwould dispute the claim that comprehension is necessary in order for languageacquisition to occur. In order to communicate effectively, learners mustunderstand what is being said. To function successfully with a target language,learners depend upon their ability to comprehend the spoken and written word.Empirical studies have identified a positive relationship between listeningability and language acquisition as well as between reading ability andlanguage acquisition.
Duringthe last century comprehension lessons usually comprised students answeringteachers' questions, writing responses to questions on their own, or both. Thewhole group version of this practice also often included «round robin reading,»wherein teachers called on individual students to read a portion of the text(and sometimes following a set order). In the last quarter of the 20th century,evidence accumulated that the read-test methods assessed comprehension morethan they taught it. The associated practice of «round robin» reading has alsobeen questioned and eliminated by many educators.
Insteadof using the prior read-test method, research studies have concluded that thereare much more effective ways to teach comprehension. Much work has been done inthe area of teaching novice readers a bank of «reading strategies,» or tools tointerpret and analyze text. [2] There is not a definitive set of strategies,but common ones include summarizing what you have read, monitoring your readingto make sure it is still making sense, and analyzing the structure of the text(e.g., the use of headings in science text). Some programs teach students howto self monitor whether they are understanding and provide students with toolsfor fixing comprehension problems.
Instructionin comprehension strategy use often involves the gradual release ofresponsibility, wherein teachers initially explain and model strategies. Overtime, they give students more and more responsibility for using the strategiesuntil they can use them independently. This technique is generally associatedwith the idea of self-regulation and reflects social cognitive theory,originally conceptualized by Albert Bandura
Comprehensionis the ultimate goal of reading. However, there are a number of factors whichmay interfere with an individual's ability to comprehend text material.
Themost common single obstacle to text comprehension is decoding insufficiency. Simplyput, if the student cannot decode accurately and automatically, comprehensionwill be compromised.
– Whenthe student cannot «apprehend» or decode the word, meaning cannot be extracted.
– Whenthe student cannot decode fluently and automatically, reading is slow andlaborious and memory for read material is poor.
– Whenthe student cannot decode and is taught to rely on «context cues» or to «guess»at words, comprehension is compromised.
Amore subtle interference is an underlying problem with language comprehensionor inferential thinking. Those with right-hemispheric or non-verbal learningdisorders are typically proficient decoders or «word callers» who have littleto no difficulty remembering the specific details of what they have read.
Inthis second category, the student typically does well in the early grades butbegins to struggle academically in the higher grades when the demand forcomprehension increases. Such students often begin to experience difficultywith test taking and lecture learning due to underlying deficits in complexcomprehension of novel material and inferential thinking.
Itis not until late elementary or middle school when the curriculum demands shiftand the demand for complex comprehension increases. Students who start outstrong but begin to experience learning difficulty in the higher grades shouldbe evaluated for underlying deficits in comprehension.
Physiologicalvision problems, such as deficits in tracking and scanning, also interfere withcomprehension of text. For example, if one were asked to read Gone with theWind through a straw, the physical energy to perform the task would result inextreme fatigue, diminished attention and poor comprehension. Comprehensionproblems in this case would not be due to specific learning disability but to asensory-based (and likely correctable) vision problem.
Lastly,psychological problems can also impair comprehension. Therefore, acomprehensive psychoeducational evaluation should be performed whenever aperson experiences problems with text comprehension. Only through evaluationcan one determine the root cause of difficulty and design appropriateintervention strategies.
Developing reading comprehension activities involves morethan identifying a text that is «at the right level,» writing a set ofcomprehension questions for students to answer after reading, handing out theassignment and sending students away to do it. A fully-developed reading activitysupports students as readers through prereading, while-reading, andpost-reading activities.
As you design reading tasks, keep in mind that completerecall of all the information in a text is an unrealistic expectation even fornative speakers. Reading activities that are meant to increase communicativecompetence should be success oriented and build up students' confidence intheir reading ability.
Construct the reading activity around a purpose that hassignificance for the students
Make sure students understand what the purpose for readingis: to get the main idea, obtain specific information, understand most or allof the message, enjoy a story, or decide whether or not to read more.Recognizing the purpose for reading will help students select appropriatereading strategies.
Define the activity's instructional goal and the appropriatetype of response
In addition to the main purpose for reading, an activity canalso have one or more instructional purposes, such as practicing or reviewingspecific grammatical constructions, introducing new vocabulary, orfamiliarizing students with the typical structure of a certain type of text.
Check the level of difficulty of the text
The factors listed below can help you judge the relative easeor difficulty of a reading text for a particular purpose and a particular groupof students.
•        How is the information organized? Does the storyline, narrative, or instruction conform to familiar expectations? Texts inwhich the events are presented in natural chronological order, which have aninformative title, and which present the information following an obviousorganization (main ideas first, details and examples second) are easier tofollow.
•        How familiar are the students with the topic?Remember that misapplication of background knowledge due to culturaldifferences can create major comprehension difficulties.
•        Does the text contain redundancy? At the lowerlevels of proficiency, listeners may find short, simple messages easier toprocess, but students with higher proficiency benefit from the naturalredundancy of authentic language.
•        Does the text offer visual support to aid in readingcomprehension? Visual aids such as photographs, maps, and diagrams helpstudents preview the content of the text, guess the meanings of unknown words,and check comprehension while reading.
Remember that the level of difficulty of a text is not thesame as the level of difficulty of a reading task. Students who lack thevocabulary to identify all of the items on a menu can still determine whetherthe restaurant serves steak and whether they can afford to order one.
Use pre-reading activities to prepare students for reading
The activities you use during pre-reading may serve aspreparation in several ways. During pre-reading you may:
•        Assess students' background knowledge of the topicand linguistic content of the text
•        Give students the background knowledge necessary forcomprehension of the text, or activate the existing knowledge that the studentspossess
•        Clarify any cultural information which may benecessary to comprehend the passage
•        Make students aware of the type of text they will bereading and the purpose(s) for reading
•        Provide opportunities for group or collaborativework and for class discussion activities
Sample pre-reading activities:
•        Using the title, subtitles, and divisions within thetext to predict content and organization or sequence of information
•        Looking at pictures, maps, diagrams, or graphs andtheir captions
•        Talking about the author's background, writingstyle, and usual topics
•        Skimming to find the theme or main idea andeliciting related prior knowledge
•        Reviewing vocabulary or grammatical structures
•        Reading over the comprehension questions to focusattention on finding that information while reading
•        Constructing semantic webs (a graphic arrangement ofconcepts or words showing how they are related)
•        Doing guided practice with guessing meaning fromcontext or checking comprehension while reading
Pre-reading activities are most important at lower levels oflanguage proficiency and at earlier stages of reading instruction. As studentsbecome more proficient at using reading strategies, you will be able to reducethe amount of guided pre-reading and allow students to do these activitiesthemselves.
Match while-reading activities to the purpose for reading
In while-reading activities, students check theircomprehension as they read. The purpose for reading determines the appropriatetype and level of comprehension.
•        When reading for specific information, students needto ask themselves, have I obtained the information I was looking for?
•        When reading for pleasure, students need to askthemselves, Do I understand the story line/sequence of ideas well enough toenjoy reading this?
•        When reading for thorough understanding (intensivereading), students need to ask themselves, Do I understand each main idea andhow the author supports it? Does what I'm reading agree with my predictions,and, if not, how does it differ? To check comprehension in this situation,students may
•        Stop at the end of each section to review and checktheir predictions, restate the main idea and summarize the section
•        Use the comprehension questions as guides to thetext, stopping to answer them as they read
Using Textbook Reading Activities
Many language textbooks emphasize product (answers tocomprehension questions) over process (using reading skills and strategies tounderstand the text), providing little or no contextual information about thereading selections or their authors, and few if any pre-reading activities.Newer textbooks may provide pre-reading activities and reading strategyguidance, but their one-size-fits-all approach may or may not be appropriatefor your students.
You can use the guidelines for developing reading activitiesgiven here as starting points for evaluating and adapting textbook readingactivities. Use existing, or add your own, pre-reading activities and readingstrategy practice as appropriate for your students. Don't make students doexercises simply because they are in the book; this destroys motivation.
Another problem with textbook reading selections is that theyhave been adapted to a predetermined reading level through adjustment ofvocabulary, grammar, and sentence length. This makes them more immediatelyapproachable, but it also means that they are less authentic and do notencourage students to apply the reading strategies they will need to useoutside of class. When this is the case, use the textbook reading selection asa starting point to introduce a writer or topic, and then give students choicesof more challenging authentic texts to read as a follow up.
Assessing Reading Proficiency
Reading ability is very difficult to assess accurately. Inthe communicative competence model, a student's reading level is the level atwhich that student is able to use reading to accomplish communication goals.This means that assessment of reading ability needs to be correlated withpurposes for reading.
Reading Aloud
A student's performance when reading aloud is not a reliableindicator of that student's reading ability. A student who is perfectly capableof understanding a given text when reading it silently may stumble when askedto combine comprehension with word recognition and speaking ability in the waythat reading aloud requires.
In addition, reading aloud is a task that students willrarely, if ever, need to do outside of the classroom. As a method ofassessment, therefore, it is not authentic: It does not test a student'sability to use reading to accomplish a purpose or goal.
However, reading aloud can help a teacher assess whether astudent is «seeing» word endings and other grammatical features when reading.To use reading aloud for this purpose, adopt the «read and look up» approach:Ask the student to read a sentence silently one or more times, untilcomfortable with the content, then look up and tell you what it says. Thisprocedure allows the student to process the text, and lets you see the resultsof that processing and know what elements, if any, the student is missing.
Comprehension Questions
Instructors often use comprehension questions to test whetherstudents have understood what they have read. In order to test comprehensionappropriately, these questions need to be coordinated with the purpose forreading. If the purpose is to find specific information, comprehensionquestions should focus on that information. If the purpose is to understand anopinion and the arguments that support it, comprehension questions should askabout those points.
In everyday reading situations, readers have a purpose forreading before they start. That is, they know what comprehension questions theyare going to need to answer before they begin reading. To make readingassessment in the language classroom more like reading outside of theclassroom, therefore, allow students to review the comprehension questionsbefore they begin to read the test passage.
Finally, when the purpose for reading is enjoyment,comprehension questions are beside the point. As a more authentic form ofassessment, have students talk or write about why they found the text enjoyableand interesting (or not).
Authentic Assessment
In order to provide authentic assessment of students' readingproficiency, a post-listening activity must reflect the real-life uses to whichstudents might put information they have gained through reading.
•        It must have a purpose other than assessment
•        It must require students to demonstrate their levelof reading comprehension by completing some task
To develop authentic assessment activities, consider the typeof response that reading a particular selection would elicit in a non-classroomsituation. For example, after reading a weather report, one might decide whatto wear the next day; after reading a set of instructions, one might repeatthem to someone else; after reading a short story, one might discuss the storyline with friends.
Use this response type as a base for selecting appropriatepost-reading tasks. You can then develop a checklist or rubric that will allowyou to evaluate each student's comprehension of specific parts of the text. SeeAssessing Learning for more on checklists and rubrics.
Developing classroom activities a teacher should alwaysremember:
- students’ comprehension may increase if they are trained to usestrategies such as activation of background knowledge and guessing;
- students need pre-reading activities that prepare them for thecomprehension tasks;
- text appropriateness should be judged on the basis of textquality, interest level, and learners’ needs;
- authentic materials provide an effective means for presenting reallanguage integrating culture, and heightening comprehension;
- vocabulary must be connected to text structure, student interest,and background knowledge in order to aid retention and recall;
- comprehension assessment should engage the learner in a hierarchyof procedures through which he or she interacts with the text.

Conclusion
Readingis an activity with a purpose. A person may read in order to gain informationor verify existing knowledge, or in order to critique a writer's ideas orwriting style. The purpose for reading also determines the appropriate approachto reading comprehension. Reading is an interactive process that goes onbetween the reader and the text, resulting in comprehension. The reader usesknowledge, skills, and strategies to determine what that meaning is.
Readingcomprehension is thus much more than decoding. Reading comprehension resultswhen the reader knows which skills and strategies are appropriate for the typeof text, and understands how to apply them to accomplish the reading purpose.
Byraising students' awareness of reading as a skill that requires activeengagement, and by explicitly teaching reading strategies, instructors helptheir students develop both the ability and the confidence to handlecommunication situations they may encounter beyond the classroom. In this waythey give their students the foundation for communicative competence in the newlanguage.
Readingcomprehension teaching aims at-
1.To let better grasping of the context, sequence and the characters narrated intext.
2.Certain parts of the text can confuse readers. Reading comprehension skillsworks on this aspect to get the clear idea of the meaning of the text.
3.Helps to create the questionnaire based on the text about its theme or idea. Itoften helps in better understanding of the said paragraph.
4.It helps to link the event of narration with our previous experiences andpredict the next probable event in the course based on the information given inthe narration.
Comprehensionis the ultimate goal of reading. However, there are a number of factors whichmay interfere with an individual's ability to comprehend text material.
Themost common single obstacle to text comprehension is decoding insufficiency. Simplyput, if the student cannot decode accurately and automatically, comprehensionwill be compromised.
– Whenthe student cannot «apprehend» or decode the word, meaning cannot be extracted.
– Whenthe student cannot decode fluently and automatically, reading is slow andlaborious and memory for read material is poor.
– Whenthe student cannot decode and is taught to rely on «context cues» or to «guess»at words, comprehension is compromised.
Developing classroom activities a teacher should alwaysremember:
- students’ comprehension may increase if they are trained to usestrategies such as activation of background knowledge and guessing;
- students need pre-reading activities that prepare them for thecomprehension tasks;
- text appropriateness should be judged on the basis of textquality, interest level, and learners’ needs;
- authentic materials provide an effective means for presenting reallanguage integrating culture, and heightening comprehension;
- vocabulary must be connected to text structure, student interest,and background knowledge in order to aid retention and recall;
- comprehension assessment should engage the learner in a hierarchyof procedures through which he or she interacts with the text.

Bibliography
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