China's population

Context:BASIC INFORMATION p.2 POPULATION GROWTH p.8 POPULATION DISTRIBUTION p.12 INTERNAL MIGRATION p.14 China Sticks to Population Control Policy in New Century p.16 President on Population Control, Resources and Environmental Protection p.17 LITERATURE P.19
BASIC INFORMATION
China is a multinational country, witha population com­posed of a large number of ethnic and linguistic groups.Almost all its inhabitants are of Mongoloid stock: thus, the basic classificationof the population is not so much Han ethnic as linguistic. The Han (Chinese),the largest group, (Chinese) outnumber the minority groups or minoritynationalities in every province or autonomous region except Tibet and Sinkiang.The Han. therefore, form the great homoge­neous mass of the Chinese people,sharing the same cul­ture, the same traditions, and the same written language.Some 55 minority groups are spread over approximately 60 percent of the totalarea of the country. Where these minority groups are found in large numbers,they have been given some semblance of autonomy and self-govern­ment;autonomous regions of several types have been established on the basis of thegeographical distribution of nationalities.
The government takes great credit forits treatment of these minorities, including care for their economicwell-being, the raising of their living standards, the provision of educationalfacilities, the promotion of their national languages and cultures, and theraising of their levels of lit­eracy, as well as for the introduction of awritten language where none existed previously. In this connection it may benoted that, of the 50-odd minority languages, only 20 had written forms beforethe coming of the Communists; and only relatively few written languages, for example,Mongolian. Tibetan. Uighur, Kazakh, Tai, and Korean,  were in everyday use.Other written languages were used chiefly for religious purposes and by alimited number of persons. Educational institutions for national minorities area feature of many large cities, notably Peking, Wu­han, Ch'eng-tu. andLan-chou.
Four major language families arerepresented in China: the Sino-Tibetan. Altaic. Indo-European, andAustro-Asiatic. The Sino-Tibetan family, both numerically and in the extent ofits distribution, is the most important; within this family, Han Chinese is themost widely spoken language. Although unified by their tradition, the writtencharacters of their language, and many cultural traits, the Han speak severalmutually unintelligible dialects and display marked regional differences. Byfar the most im­portant Chinese tongue is the Mandarin, or p'u-l'ung hua, meaning«ordinary language» or «common language». There are threevariants of Mandarin. The first of these is the northern variant, of which thePeking dialect, or Peking hua, is typical and which is spoken to thenorth of the Tsinling Mountains-Huai River line: as the most widespread Chinesetongue, it has officially been adopted as the basis for a national language.The second is the western variant, also known as the Ch'eng-tu or Upper Yangtzevariant; this is spoken in the Szechwan Basin and in adjoining parts ofsouth-west China. The third is the southern variant, also known as the Nankingor Lower Yangtze variant, which is spoken in northern Kiangsu and in southernand central Anhwei Related to Mandarin are the Hunan, or Hsiang, dialect,spoken by people in central and southern Hunan, and the Kan dialect. TheHui-chou dialect, spoken in southern Anhwei, forms an enclave within the southernMandarin area.
Less intelligible to Mandarin speakersare the dialects of the south-east coastal region, stretching from Shanghai toCanton. The. most important of these is the Wu dialect, spoken in southernKiangsu and in Chekiang. This is followed, to the south, by the Fu-chou, orMin. dialect of northern and central Fukien and by the Amoy-Swatow di­alect ofsouthern Fukien and easternmost Kwangtung. The Hakka dialect of southernmostKiangsi and north-eastern Kwangtung has a rather scattered pattern ofdistribution. Probably the best known of these southern dialects is Can­tonese,which is spoken in central and western Kwangtung and in southern Kwangsi adialect area in which a large proportion of overseas Chinese originated.
In addition to the Han, the Manchu andthe Hui (Chinese Muslims) also speak Mandarin and use Chinese characters.Manchu The Hui are descendants of Chinese who adopted Islam and Hui when itpenetrated into China in the 7th century. They are intermingled with the Hanthroughout much of the country and are distinguished as Hui only in the area oftheir heaviest concentration, the Hui Autonomous Region of Ningsia. Other Huicommunities are organised as au­tonomous prefectures (tzu-chih-cfiou) inSinkiang and as autonomous counties (tzu-chih-hsien) in Tsinghai. Hopeh.Kweichow, and Yunnan. There has been a growing ten­dency for the Hui to movefrom their scattered settlements into the area of major concentration,possibly, as firm ad­herents of Islam, in order to facilitate intermarriagewith other Muslims.
The Manchu declare themselves to bedescendants of the Manchu warriors who invaded China in the 17th century andfounded the Ch'ing dynasty (1644-1911/12). Ancient Manchu is virtually a deadlanguage, and the Manchu have been completely assimilated into Han Chinese cul­ture.They are found mainly in North China and the Northeast, but they form noseparate autonomous areas above the commune level. Some say the Koreans of theNortheast, who form an autonomous prefecture in eastern Kirin, cannot beassigned with certainty to any of the standard language classifications.
The Chuang-chia, or Chuang, are China'slargest minority group. Most of them live in the Chuang Autonomous Region ofKwangsi. They are also represented in national autonomous areas in neighbouringYunnan and Kwang­tung. They depend mainly on the cultivation of rice for theirlivelihood In religion they are animists, worship­ing particularly the spiritsof their ancestors, The Puyi (Chung-chia) group are concentrated in southernKwei­chow, where they share an autonomous prefecture with the Miao group. TheT'ung group are settled in small communities in Kwangsi and Kweichow; theyshare with the Miao group an autonomous prefecture set up in south-eastKweichow in 1956. The Tai group are concentrated in southern Yunnan and wereestablished in two autono­mous prefectures—one whose population is related mostclosely to the Tai of northern Thailand and another whose Tai are related tothe Shan people of Burma. The Li of Hai-nan Island form a separate group of theChinese-Tai language branch. They share with the Miao people a district in southernHai-nan.
Tibetans are distributed over the entireTsinghai-Tibetan plateau. Outside Tibet,Tibetan minorities constitute au­tonomous prefectures and autonomous counties.There are five Tibetan autonomous prefectures in Tsinghai, two in Szechwan, andone each in Yunnan and Kansu. The Tibetans still keep their tribalcharacteristics, but few of them are nomadic. Though essentially farmers, theyalso raise livestock and, as with other tribal peoples in the Chi­nese farwest, also hunt to supplement their food supply. The major religion of Tibethas been Tibetan Buddhism since about the 17th century; before 1959 the socialand political institutions of this region were still based largely on thisfaith. Many of the Yi (Lolo) were concentrated in two autonomousprefectures—one in southern Szechwan and another in northern Yunnan. They raisecrops and sometimes keep flocks and herds.
The Miao-Yao branch, with their majorconcentration in Kweichow, are distributed throughout the central south andsouth-western provinces and are found also in some small areas in east China.They are subdivided into many rather distinct groupings. Most of them have nowlost their traditional tribal traits through the influence of the Han, and itis only their language that serves to distin­guish them as tribal peoples.Two-thirds of the Miao are settled in Kweichow, where they share two autonomousprefectures with the T'ung and Puyi groups. The Yao peo­ple are concentrated inthe Kwangsi-Kwangtung-Hunan border area.
In some areas of China, especially inthe south-west, there are many different ethnic groups that are geographicallyintermixed. Because of language barriers and different economic structures,these peoples all maintain their own cultural traits and live in relativeisolation from one an­other. In some places the Han are active in the towns andin the fertile river valleys, while the minority peoples depend for theirlivelihood on more primitive forms of agriculture or on grazing their livestockon hillsides and mountains. The vertical distribution of these peoples is inzones usually the higher they live, the less complex
their way of life. In former times theydid not mix well with one another, but now, with highways penetrating deep intotheir settlements, they have better opportunities to communicate with othergroups and are also enjoying better living conditions.
While the minorities of theSino-Tibetan language fam­ily are thus concentrated in the south andsouth-west, the second major language family the Altaic is represented entirelyby minorities in north-western and northern China. The Altaic family falls intothree branches: Turkic, Mon­golian, and Manchu-Tungus. The Turkic languagebranch is by far the most numerous of the three Altaic branches. The Uighur,who are Muslims, form the largest Turkic minority. They are distributed overchains of oases in the Tarim Basin and in the Dzungarian Basin of Sinkiang.They mainly depend on irrigation agriculture for a liveli­hood. Other Turkicminorities in Sinkiang are splinter groups of nationalities living inneighbouring nations of Central Asia, including the Kazakh and Kyrgyz. Allthese groups are adherents of Islam. The Kazakh and Kyrgyz are pastoral nomadicpeoples, still showing traces of tribal organisation. The Kazakh live mainly innorth-western and north-eastern Sinkiang as herders, retiring to their camps inthe valleys when winter comes; they are established in the 1-li-ha-sa-k'o (Hi Kazakh)Autonomous Prefecture. The Kyrgyz are high-mountain pastoralists and are con­centratedmainly in the westernmost part of Sinkiang.
The Mongolians, who are by nature a nomadic people are themost widely dispersed of the minority nationalities of China. Most of them areinhabitants of the Inner Mon­golia Autonomous Region. Small Mongolian and Mongo­lian-relatedgroups of people are scattered throughout the vast area from Sinkiang throughTsinghai and Kansu and into the provinces of the Northeast (Kirin,Heilungkiang, and Liaoning). In addition to the Inner Mongolia Au­tonomousRegion, the Mongolians are established in two autonomous prefectures inSinkiang, a joint autonomous prefecture with Tibetans and Kazakh in Tsinghai,and several autonomous counties in thewestern area of the Northeast. Some of them retain their tribal divisions andare pastoralists, but large numbers of Mongolians engage in sedentaryagriculture, and some of them combine the growing of crops with herding. Thetribes, who are de­pendent upon animal husbandry, travel each year around thepastureland—grazing sheep, goats, horses, cattle, and camels—and then return totheir point of departure. A few take up hunting and fur trapping in order tosupple­ment their income. The Mongolian language consists of several dialects,but in religion it is a unifying force; most Mongolians are believers inTibetan Buddhism. A few linguistic minorities in China belong to neither theSino-Tibetan nor the Altaic language family. The Tajik of westernmost Sinkiangare related to the population of Tajikistan and belong to the Iranian branch ofthe Indo-European family. The Kawa people of the China-Burma border area belongto the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austro-Asiatic family.POPULATION GROWTH
Historical records show that, as longago as 800 вс, in the early years of the Chou dynasty, China was alreadyinhabited by about 13,700,000 people. Until the last years The census of theHsi (Western) Han dynasty, about ad 2,comparatively accurate and complete registers of population were kept, and thetotal population in that year was given as 59,600,000. This first Chinesecensus was intended mainly as a preparatory step toward the levy of a poll tax.Many members of the population, aware that a census might work to theirdisadvantage, managed to avoid reporting; this explains why all subsequentpopulation figures were unreliable until 1712. In that year the Emperordeclared that an increased population would not be subject to tax; populationfigures thereafter gradually became more accurate.
During the later years of the Pei(Northern) Sung dy­nasty, in the early 12th century, when China was already inthe heyday of its economic and cultural development, the total population beganto exceed 100,000,000. Later, uninterrupted and large-scale invasions from thenorth reduced the country's population. When national unifica­tion returnedwith the advent of the Ming dynasty, the census was at first strictlyconducted. The population of China, according to a registration compiled in1381, was quite close to the one registered in ad2.
From the 15th century onward, thepopulation increased steadily; this increase was interrupted by wars and natu­raldisasters in the mid-17th century and slowed by the internal strife and foreigninvasions in the century that preceded the Communist takeover in 1949. Duringthe 18th century China enjoyed a lengthy period of peace and prosperity, characterizedby continual territorial ex­pansion and an accelerating population increase. In1762 China had a population of more than 200,000.000. and by 1834 thepopulation had doubled. It should be noted that during this period there was noconcomitant increase in the amount of cultivable land; from this time on. landhunger became a growing problem. After 1949 sanitation and medical care greatlyimproved, epidemics were brought under control, and the younger generationbecame much healthier. Public hygiene also improved, resulting in a death ratethat declined faster than the birth rate and a rate of population growth thatspeeded up again. Population reached 1,000.000.000 in the early 1980s.
Now China hasa population of 1,295.33 million. Compared with the population of 1,133.68million from the 1990 population census (with zero hour of July 1, 1990 as thereference time), the total population of the 31 provinces, autonomous regionsand municipalities and the servicemen of the mainland of China increased by132.15 million persons, or 11.66 percent over the past 10 years and 4 months.The average annual growth was 12.79 million persons, or a growth rate of 1.07percent.
The continually growing populationposes major prob­lems for the government. Faced with difficulties in ob­tainingan adequate food supply and in combating the generally low standard of living,the authorities sponsored Drive a drive for birth control in 1955-58. A secondattempt at for birth  population control began in 1962, when advocacy of latecontrol          marriages and the use of contraceptives became promi­nentparts of the program. The outbreak of the Cultural Revolution interrupted thissecond family-planning drive, but in 1970 a third and much stricter program wasiniti­ated. This program attempted to make late marriage and family limitationobligatory, and it culminated in 1979 in efforts to implement a policy of onechild per family.
Other developments affected the rate ofpopulation growth more than the first two official family-planning campaigns.For example, although family planning had been rejected by Chinese CommunistParty Chairman Mao Zedong (Mao Tse-tung) in 1958, the Great Leap Forward thathe initiated in that year (see below The economy) caused a massivefamine that resulted in more deaths than births and a reduction of populationin 1960. By 1963 recovery from the famine produced the highest rate ofpopulation increase since 1949, at more than 3 percent, although the secondbirth-control campaign had already begun.
Since the initiation of the thirdfamily-planning program in 1970, however, state efforts have been much more ef­fective.China's population growth rate is now unusually low for a developing country,although the huge size of its population still results in a large annual netpopula­tion growth.
Below I described the distributionof China’s population by different characteristics.
I. SexComposition.
Of the people enumeratedin the 31 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities and servicemen ofthe mainland of China, 653.55 million persons or 51.63 percent were males,while 612.28 million persons or 48.37 percent were females. The sex ratio(female=100) was 106.74.
　
II. Age Composition.
Of the people enumeratedin the 31 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities and servicemen ofthe mainland of China, 289.79 million persons were in the age group of 0-14,accounting for 22.89 percent of the total population; 887.93 million persons inthe age group of 15-64, accounting for 70.15 percent and 88.11 million personsin the age group of 65 and over, accounting for 6.96 percent. As compared withthe results of the 1990 population census, the share of people in the age groupof 0-14 was down by 4.80 percentage points, and that for people aged 65 andover was up by 1.39 percentage points.
　
III. Composition ofNationalities.
Of the people enumeratedin the 31 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities and servicemen ofthe mainland of China, 1,159.40 million persons or 91.59 percent were of Hannationality, and 106.43 million persons or 8.41 percent were of variousnational minorities. Compared with the 1990 population census, the populationof Han people increased by 116.92 million persons, or 11.22 percent; while thepopulation of various national minorities increased by 15.23 million persons,or 16.70 percent.
　
IV. Composition ofEducational Attainment.
Of the 31 provinces,autonomous regions and municipalities and servicemen of the mainland of China,45.71 million persons had finished university education (referring to juniorcollege and above); 141.09 million persons had received senior secondaryeducation (including secondary technical school education); 429.89 millionpersons had received junior secondary education and 451.91 million persons hadhad primary education (the educated persons included graduates and students inschools).
Compared with the 1990population census, the following changes had taken place in the number ofpeople with various educational attainments of every 100,000 people: number ofpeople with university education increased to 3,611 from 1,422; number ofpeople with senior secondary education increased to 11,146 from 8,039; numberof people with junior secondary education increased from 23,344 to 33,961; andnumber of people with primary education decreased from 37,057 to 35,701.
Of the people enumeratedin the 31 provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities and servicemen ofthe mainland of China, 85.07 million persons were illiterate (i.e. people over15 years of age who can not read or can read very little). Compared with the 15.88percent of illiterate people in the 1990 population census, the proportion haddropped to 6.72 percent, or down by 9.16 percentage points.
　
V. Urban and RuralPopulation.
In the 31 provinces,autonomous regions and municipalities of the mainland of China, there were455.94 million urban residents, accounting for 36.09 percent of the totalpopulation; and that of rural residents stood at 807.39 million, accounting for63.91 percent. Compared with the 1990 population census, the proportion ofurban residents rose by 9.86 percentage points.POPULATION DISTRIBUTION
Following arethe results from the advance tabulation on the geographic distribution ofpopulation from the fifth national population census of China:
Region
Population (million) Beijing Municipality 13.82 Tianjin Municipality 10.01 Hebei Province 67.44 Shanxi Province 32.97 Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region 23.76 Liaoning Province 42.38 Jilin Province 27.28 Heilongjiang Province 36.89 Shanghai Municipality 16.74 Jiangsu Province 74.38 Zhejiang Province 46.77 Anhui Province 59.86
Fujian Province
(excluding the population in Jinmen and Mazu and a few other islands) 34.71 Jiangxi Province 41.40 Shandong Province 90.79 Henan Province 92.56 Hubei Province 60.28 Hunan Province 64.40 Guangdong Province 86.42 Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region 44.89 Hainan Province 7.87 Chongqing Municipality 30.90 Sichuan Province 83.29 Guizhou Province 35.25 Yunnan Province 42.88 Tibet Autonomous Region 2.62 Shaanxi Province 36.05 Gansu Province 25.62 Qinghai Province 5.18 Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region 5.62 Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region 19.25 Hongkong Special Administrative Region 6.78 Macao Special Administrative Region 0.44 Taiwan Province and Jinmen, Mazu and a few other islands of Fujian Province 22.28 Servicemen 2.50
Because of complex natural conditions,the population of China is quite unevenly distributed. Population densityvaries strikingly, with the greatest contrast occurring be­tween the easternhalf of China and the lands of the west and the north-west. Exceptionally highpopulation densities occur in the Yangtze Delta, in the Pearl River Delta, andon the Ch'eng-tu Plain of the western Szechwan Basin. Most of the high-densityareas are coterminous with the alluvial plains on which intensive agricultureis centred.
In contrast, the isolated, extensivewestern and frontier regions, which are much larger than any European na­tion,are sparsely populated. Extensive uninhabited areas include the extremely highnorthern part of Tibet, the sandy wastes of the central Tarim and eastern Dzungarianbasins in Sinkiang, and the barren desert and mountains east of Lop Nor.
In the 1950s the government becameincreasingly aware of the importance of the frontier regions and initiated adrive for former members of the military and young intel­lectuals to settlethere. Consequently, the population has increased, following the constructionof new railways and highways that traverse the wasteland; a number of smallmining and industrial towns have also sprung up.
/>INTERNAL MIGRATION
Migrations have occurred oftenthroughout the history of China. Sometimes they took place because a famine orpolitical disturbance would cause the depopulation of an area alreadyintensively cultivated, after which people in adjacent crowded regions wouldmove in to occupy the deserted land. Sometime between 1640 and 1646 a peas­antrebellion broke out in Szechwan, and there was a great loss of life. Peoplefrom Hupeh and Shensi then entered Szechwan to fill the vacuum, and themovement contin­ued until the 19th century. Again, during the middle of the19th century, the Taiping Rebellion caused another large-scale disruption ofpopulation. Many people in the Lower Yangtze were massacred by the opposingarmies, and the survivors suffered from starvation. After the defeat of therebellion, people from Hupeh, Hunan, and Honan moved into the depopulated areasof Kiangsu. Anhwei. and Chekiang, where farmland was lying uncultivated forwant of labour. Similar examples are provided by the Nien Rebellion in the HuaiRiver region in the 1850s and '60s, the Muslim rebellions in Shensi and Kansuin the 1860s and '70s, and the great Shensi and Shansi famine of 1877-78.
In modern history the domestic movementof the Han to Manchuria (now known as the Northeast) is the most    Migrationsignificant. Even before the establishment of the Ch'ing   to dynasty in  1644, Manchu soldiers launched raids into    Manchuria North China and capturedHan labourers, who were then obliged to settle in Manchuria. In 1668 the areawas closed to further Han migration by an Imperial decree, but this ban wasnever effectively enforced. By 1850. Han settlers had secured a position ofdominance in their colonisation of Manchuria. The ban was later partially'lifted, partly because the Manchu rulers were harassed by disturbances amongthe teeming population of China proper and partly because the Russian Empire time and again triedto invade sparsely populated and thus weakly defended Manchuria. The ban wasfinally removed altogether in 1878, but set­tlement was encouraged only after1900. The influx of people into Manchuria was especially pro­nounced after1923, and incoming farmers rapidly brought a vast area of virgin prairie undercultivation. About two-thirds of the immigrants entered Manchuria by sea, andone-third came overland. Because of the severity of the winter weather,migration in the early stage was highly sea­sonal, usually starting in Februaryand continuing through the spring. After the autumn harvest a large proportionof the farmers returned south. As Manchuria developed into the principalindustrial region of China, however, large urban centres arose, and the natureof the migration changed. No longer was the movement primarily one of agriculturalresettlement; instead it became essentially a rural-to-urban movement ofinterregional magnitude. After 1949 the new government's efforts to fosterplanned migration into interior and border regions produced no­ticeableresults. Although the total number of people involved in such migrations is notknown, it has been estimated that by 1980 about 25 to 35 percent of thepopulation of such regions and provinces as Inner Mon­golia, Sinkiang,Heilungkiang. and Tsinghai consisted of recent migrants, and migration hadraised the percentage of Han in Sinkiang from about 10 to 40 percent of thetotal. Efforts to control the growth of large cities led to the resettlement of20,000,000 urbanites in the countryside after the failure of the Great LeapForward and of 17,-000,000 urban-educated youths in the decade after 1968.Within the next decade, however, the majority of these «rusticatedyouths» were allowed to return to the cities, and new migration from ruralareas pushed urban popu­lation totals upward once again. China Sticks toPopulation Control Policy in New Century
China willcontinue its efforts to control the growth of the population in the 21 century,said Zhang Weiqing, minister of the State Family Planning Commission onNovember 2, 2000.
At the annualboard meeting of the Partners in Population and Development by South-SouthCooperation, which opened Thursday in Beijing, Zhang said that keeping a lowbirth rate is the key task of China' s family planning program in the comingdecade.
He said thatChina has made it a goal to keep the population below 1.4 billion until 2010 onthe basis of scientific feasibility study.
In order torealise the goal, China is persisting in popularisation and education about familyplanning and contraception, and it will make efforts to build a perfectpopulation control system suitable for China's situation, said Zhang.
According to Zhang, population will continue to be a pressing issuefor China in the 21st century. The annual net population growth will be more than10 million at the start of the new century. The population will not declineuntil it reaches a peak of 1.6 billion in the middle of the 21st century, Zhangsaid.
At present,China has a large work-age population, which puts a heavy burden on employment.The work-age population will peak at 900 million in the coming decades.
In addition, Zhang predicts thatthe number of senior citizens over the age of 60 in China will reach 130million at the end of this year, and will exceed 357 million in 2030, and 439million in 2050, or a quarter of the total population.
Zhang saidthat China will stick to family planning policy for a long time depending onfuture population situation.
Presidenton Population Control, Resources and Environmental Protection
 
Populationcontrol, resources and environmental protection will be three crucial issues inChina's march toward becoming a great power in the new century, President JiangZemin told a seminar held by the Communist Party of China Central CommitteeSunday.
Jiang saidthat governmental decisions concerning the country's population control, resourcesand environmental protection demand concerted efforts and cooperation from allwalks of life.
Jiang warnedthat although marked progress had been made during the 1996-2000 period, Chinais still facing many problems and challenges concerning population, resourcesand environmental protection in the coming years.
«Theseissues are directly related to the country's overall development. Failure inhandling them may postpone the achievement of China's set goals in terms ofsocial and economic development,» said Jiang.
Jiang saidthat the next few years will be a crucial stage for China to stabilise itsbirth rate at the current low level and improve population quality.
When dealing with populationissues, governments at all levels should better serve the people's needs, andturn the country's birth control efforts into a cause benefiting China's hugepopulace, Jiang remarked.
Jiang alsosaid that resource-related works should better serve the country's sustainabledevelopment. Protection and rational utilisation of resources are to be grantedequal importance by administration departments.
Meanwhile, thepresident called for the establishment of a strict resources administrationmechanism, and urged the transformation of the traditional resource-utilisingnorms, to save natural resources from being wasted.
Jiangsuggested the use of new technologies and a complete monitoring system to curbthe country's long-standing environmental pollution, while guaranteeing healthyeconomic development.
Also in hisspeech, Jiang stressed the importance of improving the regulation of China'sscarce water resources and the further construction of irrigation works.
 
LITERATURE:
1.  NATIONAL BUREAU OF STATISTICS PEOPLE'S REPUPLICOF CHINA.
2.  GREAT BRITISH ENCYCLOPAEDIA
3.  CHINEESE MAGAZINES (ENGLISH VARIANT)